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CorrespondenCe
To the Editor – We face, after over two
decades of not-so-benign neglect, a serious deficit of alternative-energy (AE)-oriented basic science researchers. Indeed, a major problem in meeting the global energy challenge may well be the paucity of top scientists pursuing AE-related research problems. This deficit has the potential to self-proliferate, because a limited core of experienced researchers will encourage a limited group of talented students and post-docs to seek research opportunities in AE research in the future.
In early September 2007, Israeli scientists performed an ‘experiment’ to break out of this pattern: A selected group of 24 of the nation’s top, final-year PhD students from all areas of physical, life and engineering sciences, assembled in a tranquil Galilee mountain location, along with 20 senior Israeli and foreign scientists, who are all experts in various aspects of AE or in directly relevant core areas. Most students didn’t have any previous AE experience, but had showed a clear interest in the subject.
The meeting (www.weizmann.ac.il/conferences/ASEO/) funded by the Bat-Sheva de Rothschild foundation, with support from the Safed foundation, the Mizpe Yamim hotel and our parent institutions, had a rather conventional name: ‘A lternative, Sustainable Energy Options’. But there was nothing conventional about the programme and atmosphere of the meeting.
After a packed two-day crash course of general presentations by experts,
explaining AE issues “from fundamentals to engineering”, the group split into smaller sets and was introduced to systematic
汇兑损益innovative thinking approaches. In each of the smaller groups, dynamic discussions and brain-storming sessions developed, interspersed by intense tutoring by the senior scientists in their areas of
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expertise (see Fig. 1). The final discussion sessions were led by students on topics they proposed, such as: “is there really a crisis in energy resources?”; “is there an ideal electrical storage approach?”; and “theoretical limit(s) of biological solutions to the energy challenge”.
Students and lecturers admitted to being initially sceptical about the non-conventional seminar progr
amme, but the ‘pleasant week in a nice place’ expectations were surpassed by intense days of
discussions, focused personal tutoring and plenty of lively arguments. “The seminar made us aware of, and knowledgeable about, the energy challenges and related worldwide scientific research, but it also allowed us to form our own opinions about directions for fruitful avenues of research
for possible new approaches to AE,” was the response from one student.
How large a new cadre of energy researchers will develop as a result of the meeting remains to be seen, but it seems clear that its first seeds could have been planted on a beautiful, peaceful Galilee mountain side. Our message to all our colleagues is that investing some time and effort now in such projects should help us all to a brighter future, by introducing a new generation to AE research.
David Cahen 1, Gitti L. Frey 2 and Arie Zaban 3
1
Faculty of Chemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; 2Department of Materials Engineering, Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel; 3Department of Chemistry, The Aharon and Rachel Dahan Nano-energy Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 529
00, Israel e-mail: david.cahen@weizmann.ac.il; gitti@technion.ac.il; zabana@mail.biu.ac.il
Human resources for future alternative-energy research
Figure 1 Tutoring from the senior scientists. Left picture: David Cahen (far right) from Weizmann Institute, Israel and Uri Sivan (second right), Technion, Israel. Right picture: Peter Atkins (second right), Oxford University, UK, with the ‘ideas and questions’ boards in the background.
To the Editor — Advances in one area can unwittingly produce improvements in an entirely different field. Industrially manufactured multilayer capacitors
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(MLCs) are 1-cent electronic components 1 (Fig. 1a,b) that now contain ferromagnetic nickel because it is cheap. We show that MLCs therefore inadvertently function as room-temperature (RT) magnetic field sensors that require no electrical power.
There is great scientific interest at the moment 2,3 in the magnetoelectric (ME) coupling of magnetic and electrical order
parameters. However, suggested applications 2 in, for example, transducers and data storage have not been forthcoming because single-phase materials perform poorly 2,3, and the exploitation of large strain-mediated 2,3 coupling between two phases requires
development work and the identification of end users. Relevant development work has unwittingly been performed in MLCs based on BaTiO 3, via the cost-saving replacement of Ag/Pd with Ni in the electrodes.
In a vibrating sample magnetometer, with electrical access 4 to the sample from
a digital multimeter and power
supply, quasi-static ME measurements were performed on a ‘1206’ MLC (0.6 µF, AVX, Northern Irela
nd) with 81 parallel capacitors (each of active area 4.5 mm 2) formed from interdigitated Ni-based electrodes (1.5 µm thick) separated by BaTiO 3-based dielectric layers (9.8 µm thick); Fig. 1b.
Figure 1c shows direct and reproducible ME effects V (H ), where V is the voltage response to an applied magnetic field H . Magnetization M (H ) behaves similarly, confirming strain-mediated coupling by Ni
A one-cent room-temperature magnetoelectric sensor
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magnetostriction. The maximum sensitivity d V /d H is 7.0 × 10–6 V Oe –1, that is, 0.1 T generates
7 mV . The MLC is in effect less sensitive than a SQUID, but operates at RT and only costs 1 cent. The sensitivity of an expensive (larger) sandwich structure using optimal materials (Terfenol-D and single-crystal Pb(Mg,Nb)O 3-PbTiO 3)5 is 105 times larger, but its ME coupling constant is only 103 times larger than the MLC value (d E /d H = 7.1 × 10-3 V cm –1 Oe –1) where E is electric field. The geometrically calculated dielectric constant is 1823, giving d P /d H = 1.4 × 10–10 s m –1, where P is polarization.
Figure 1d shows V (0.5 T) with H parallel to the magnetic easy axis after different electrical poling histories, at selected temperatures. The weak temperature dependence around RT is attractive for applications. The observed dependence of V (0.5 T) on both poling history and
remnant polarization P r (Fig. 1d) reflects the ferroelectric nature of the doped BaTiO 3. Ferroelectricity breaks device symmetry, and guarantees piezoelectricity for strain-mediated coupling. Compared with pure BaTiO 3, P r is suppressed but the Curie temperature (T C ) is similar (Fig. 1d).
Figure 1e shows converse ME effects M (E ). Sharp changes in M of, for example, 7.2% at 100 s (µ0d M /d E = 1.9 × 10–9 s m –1) compare favourably with the 26% (µ0d M /d E = 2.21 × 10–8 s m
–1) seen 4 at RT for an epitaxial La 0.67Sr 0.33MnO 3 film on single-crystal BaTiO 3 (µ0 is the permeability of free space).
Geometrically, MLCs are inadvertently well-designed ME transducers because their laminar structure simplifies strain fields and thus enhances coupling 4; their large capacitance generates large (magnetically induced) output currents; and their rigid multilayer structure and inactive surroundings (unaddressed dielectric) inhibit device failure via cracking (albeit at the potential expense of performance).
In 1-cent MLCs that can be
mass-produced, ME coupling is easily measured, is a weakly varying function of temperature at RT, and is highly紫外可见
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reproducible across field cycles (V (H ) is well below the MLC poling threshold) and temperature cycles. Different MLC geometries yield analagous results. MLC sensitivity d V /d H could be significantly improved by appropriate materials
selection 5 or by wiring the capacitor plates
in series. Direct ME effects in MLCs could be exploited for energy harvesting, and for magnetic-field sensors that do not require electrical power, for example, for underwater, space, health and safety, in vivo , teaching or toy applications.
References
1. Milliken, A. D., Bell, A. J. & Scott, J. F. Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 112910 (2007).
2. Fiebig, M. J. Phys. D 38, R123–R152 (2005).
3. Eerenstein, W ., Mathur, N. D. & Scott, J. F. Nature 442, 759–765 (2006).
4. Eerenstein, W ., Wiora, M., Prieto, J. L., Scott, J. F. & Mathur, N. D. Nature Mater. 6, 348–351 (2007).
5. Ryu, J., Priya, S., Uchino, K. & Kim, H. E. J. Electroceram. 8, 107–119 (2002).
Acknowledgements
We thank Gustau Catalan and Pavel Zubko for discussions, Eddie Manthorpe (AVX) for samples, and Maureen Strawhorne (AVX) for internal geometry data.
Competing financial interests
The authors declare competing financial interests: details accompany the full-text HTML version of the paper at www.nature/naturematerials
C. Israel 1, N.
D. Mathur 1* and J. F. Scott 2
1
University of Cambridge, Department of Materials Science, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3QZ, UK 2
University of Cambridge, Department of Earth Sciences, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, UK
*e-mail: ndm12@cam.ac.uk
Ni-based electrodes
V (m V )
V (0.5 T ) (m V )
BaTiO 3-based dielectric
108642
025
20
P r
15
0.2CO2封存
µO H (T)
0.40.6
300 K
M (kA m –1)
–5V
V
300 K
–102 kV cm –1–91.8 kV cm –1
+91.8 kV cm –1
0.8
–20
–101020
00
P r (T ) / P r (77 K)
0.51.0100
200T (K)
Poled –
Poled +
300
400
BaTiO 3 T c
Depoled
50
100150
200
Time (s)
0100200
300
H
Hard
H
Easy
M (k A m –1)
Figure 1 ME coupling in an MLC based on BaTiO 3 with interdigitating Ni-based electrodes. All dash
ed lines are guides to the eye. a , MLC size and cost comparison. b , Schematic MLC cross-section. A magnetic easy axis lies in the electrode plane, and the out-of-plane direction is hard. c ,d , direct ME data V (H ) averaged over six runs after poling in E = 102 kV cm –1 (c ) and ±102 kV cm –1 (d ), and discharging. c , V (H ) at 300 K and the MLC magnetization M (H ) have a similar form for H || easy or hard. V (H ) = V (–H ). d , V (0.5 T) with H || easy tracks the remanent MLC polarization P r (T ) (measured from 50 Hz P (E ) loops to ±4.9 kV cm –1). Data after depoling are also presented. e , Converse ME data M (E ) at 300 K in H = 0 are established by plotting M (t ) and changing |E | by 10.2 kV cm –1 every ∼10 s (black line: -102 kV cm –1 → +91.8 kV cm –1, red line: –102 kV cm –1 → 0 → –91.8 kV cm –1). Before time t = 0, the MLC was saturated in µ0H = 0.5 T and E = –102 kV cm –1. H ||M || easy; M normalized using electrode volume; current <10 nA several seconds after each change of E .
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