Modeling the Spatial Dynamics of Regional Land Use:The CLUE-S Model
PETER H.VERBURG*
Department of Environmental Sciences Wageningen University
P.O.Box37
6700AA Wageningen,The Netherlands
and
Faculty of Geographical Sciences
Utrecht University
P.O.Box80115
3508TC Utrecht,The Netherlands
爆炸力学
WELMOED SOEPBOER
A.VELDKAMP
Department of Environmental Sciences Wageningen University
P.O.Box37
6700AA Wageningen,The Netherlands
RAMIL LIMPIADA
VICTORIA ESPALDON
School of Environmental Science and Management University of the Philippines Los Ban˜os
College,Laguna
4031,Philippines SHARIFAH S.A.MASTURA
Department of Geography
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600Bangi
Selangor,Malaysia
ABSTRACT/Land-use change models are important tools for integrated environmental management.Through scenario analysis they can help to identify near-future critical locations in the face of environmental change.A dynamic,spatially ex-plicit,land-use change model is presented for the regional scale:CLUE-S.The model is specifically developed for the analysis of land use in small ,a watershed or province)at afine spatial resolution.The model structure is based on systems theory to allow the integrated analysis of land-use change in relation to socio-economic and biophysi-cal driving factors.The model explicitly addresses the hierar-chical organization of land use systems,spatial connectivity between locations and stability.Stability is incorporated by a set of variables that define the relative elasticity of the actual land-use type to conversion.The user can specify these set-tings based on expert knowledge or survey data.Two appli-cations of the model in the Philippines and Malaysia are used to illustrate the functioning of the model and its validation.
Land-use change is central to environmental man-agement through its influence on biodiversity,water and radiation budgets,trace gas emissions,carbon cy-cling,and livelihoods(Lambin
and others2000a, Turner1994).Land-use planning attempts to influence the land-use change dynamics so that land-use config-urations are achieved that balance environmental and stakeholder needs.
Environmental management and land-use planning therefore need information about the dynamics of land use.Models can help to understand these dynamics and project near future land-use trajectories in order to target management decisions(Schoonenboom1995).Environmental management,and land-use planning specifically,take place at different spatial and organisa-tional levels,often corresponding with either eco-re-gional or administrative units,such as the national or provincial level.The information needed and the man-agement decisions made are different for the different levels of analysis.At the national level it is often suffi-cient to identify regions that qualify as“hot-spots”of land-use ,areas that are likely to be faced with rapid land use conversions.Once these hot-spots are identified a more detailed land use change analysis is often needed at the regional level.
At the regional level,the effects of land-use change on natural resources can be determined by a combina-tion of land use change analysis and specific models to assess the impact on natural resources.Examples of this type of model are water balance models(Schulze 2000),nutrient balance
models(Priess and Koning 2001,Smaling and Fresco1993)and erosion/sedimen-tation models(Schoorl and Veldkamp2000).Most of-
KEY WORDS:Land-use change;Modeling;Systems approach;Sce-
nario analysis;Natural resources management
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed;email:
pverburg@gissrv.iend.wau.nl
DOI:10.1007/s00267-002-2630-x Environmental Management Vol.30,No.3,pp.391–405©2002Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
ten these models need high-resolution data for land use to appropriately simulate the processes involved.
Land-Use Change Models
The rising awareness of the need for spatially-ex-plicit land-use models within the Land-Use and Lan
d-Cover Change research community(LUCC;Lambin and others2000a,Turner and others1995)has led to the development of a wide range of land-use change models.Whereas most models were originally devel-oped for deforestation(reviews by Kaimowitz and An-gelsen1998,Lambin1997)more recent efforts also address other land use conversions such as urbaniza-tion and agricultural intensification(Brown and others 2000,Engelen and others1995,Hilferink and Rietveld 1999,Lambin and others2000b).Spatially explicit ap-proaches are often based on cellular automata that simulate land use change as a function of land use in the neighborhood and a set of user-specified relations with driving factors(Balzter and others1998,Candau 2000,Engelen and others1995,Wu1998).The speci-fication of the neighborhood functions and transition rules is done either based on the user’s expert knowl-edge,which can be a problematic process due to a lack of quantitative understanding,or on empirical rela-tions between land use and driving ,Pi-janowski and others2000,Pontius and others2000).A probability surface,based on either logistic regression or neural network analysis of historic conversions,is made for future conversions.Projections of change are based on applying a cut-off value to this probability sur-face.Although appropriate for short-term projections,if the trend in land-use change continues,this methodology is incapable of projecting changes when the demands for different land-use types change,leading to a discontinua-tion of the trends.Moreover,these models are usually capable of simulating the conversion of one land-use type deforestation)because they do not address competition between land-use types explicitly.
The CLUE Modeling Framework
The Conversion of Land Use and its Effects(CLUE) modeling framework(Veldkamp and Fresco1996,Ver-burg and others1999a)was developed to simulate land-use change using empirically quantified relations be-tween land use and its driving factors in combination with dynamic modeling.In contrast to most empirical models,it is possible to simulate multiple land-use types simultaneously through the dynamic simulation of competition between land-use types.
This model was developed for the national and con-tinental level,applications are available for Central America(Kok and Winograd2001),Ecuador(de Kon-ing and others1999),China(Verburg and others 2000),and Java,Indonesia(Verburg and others 1999b).For study areas with such a large extent the spatial resolution of analysis was coarse(pixel size vary-ing between7ϫ7and32ϫ32km).This is a conse-quence of the impossibility to acquire data for land use and all driving factors atfiner spatial resolutions.A coarse spatial resolution requires a different data rep-resentation than the common representation for data with afine spatial resolution.Infine resolution grid-based approaches land use is defined by the most dom-inant land-use type within the pixel.However,such a data representation would lead to large biases in the land-use distribution as some class proportions will di-minish and other will increase with scale depending on the spatial and
probability distributions of the cover types(Moody and Woodcock1994).In the applications of the CLUE model at the national or continental level we have,therefore,represented land use by designating the relative cover of each land-use type in each pixel, e.g.a pixel can contain30%cultivated land,40%grass-land,and30%forest.This data representation is di-rectly related to the information contained in the cen-sus data that underlie the applications.For each administrative unit,census data denote the number of hectares devoted to different land-use types.
北京卫生防疫站When studying areas with a relatively small spatial ex-tent,we often base our land-use data on land-use maps or remote sensing images that denote land-use types respec-tively by homogeneous polygons or classified pixels. When converted to a raster format this results in only one, dominant,land-use type occupying one unit of analysis. The validity of this data representation depends on the patchiness of the landscape and the pixel size chosen. Most sub-national land use studies use this representation of land use with pixel sizes varying between a few meters up to about1ϫ1km.The two different data represen-tations are shown in Figure1. Because of the differences in data representation and other features that are typical for regional appli-cations,the CLUE model can not directly be applied at the regional scale.This paper describes the mod-ified modeling approach for regional applications of the model,now called CLUE-S(the Conv
ersion of Land Use and its Effects at Small regional extent). The next section describes the theories underlying the development of the model after which it is de-scribed how these concepts are incorporated in the simulation model.The functioning of the model is illustrated for two case-studies and is followed by a general discussion.
392P.H.Verburg and others
Characteristics of Land-Use Systems
This section lists the main concepts and theories that are prevalent for describing the dynamics of land-use change being relevant for the development of land-use change models.
Land-use systems are complex and operate at the interface of multiple social and ecological systems.The similarities between land use,social,and ecological systems allow us to use concepts that have proven to be useful for studying and simulating ecological systems in our analysis of land-use change (Loucks 1977,Adger 1999,Holling and Sanderson 1996).Among those con-cepts,connectivity is important.The concept of con-nectivity acknowledges that locations that are at a cer-tain distance are related to each other (Green 1994).Connectivity can be a direct result of biophysical ,sedimentation in the lowlands is a direct result of erosion in the uplands,
but more often it is due to the movement of species or humans through the landscape.Land degradation at a certain location will trigger farmers to clear land at a new location.Thus,changes in land use at this new location are related to the land-use conditions in the other location.In other instances more complex relations exist that are rooted in the social and economic organization of the system.The hierarchical structure of social organization causes some lower level processes to be constrained by higher level ,the establishments of a new fruit-tree plantation in an area near to the market might in fluence prices in such a way that it is no longer pro fitable for farmers to produce fruits in more distant areas.For studying this situation an-other concept from ecology,hierarchy theory,is use-ful (Allen and Starr 1982,O ’Neill and others 1986).This theory states that higher level processes con-strain lower level processes whereas the higher level processes might emerge from lower level dynamics.This makes the analysis of the land-use system at different levels of analysis necessary.
Connectivity implies that we cannot understand land use at a certain location by solely studying the site characteristics of that location.The situation at
neigh-
Figure 1.Data representation and land-use model used for respectively case-studies with a national/continental extent and local/regional extent.
Modeling Regional Land-Use Change
393
boring or even more distant locations can be as impor-tant as the conditions at the location itself.
Land-use and land-cover change are the result of many interacting processes.Each of these processes operates over a range of scales in space and time.These processes are driven by one or more of these variables that influence the actions of the agents of land-use and cover change involved.These variables are often re-ferred to as underlying driving forces which underpin the proximate causes of land-use change,such as wood extraction or agricultural expansion(Geist and Lambin 2001).These driving factors include demographic ,population pressure),economic , economic growth),technological factors,policy and institutional factors,cultural factors,and biophysical factors(Turner and others1995,Kaimowitz and An-gelsen1998).These factors influence land-use change in different ways.Some of these factors directly influ-ence the rate and quantity of land-use he amount of forest cleared by new i
ncoming migrants. Other factors determine the location of land-use he suitability of the soils for agricultural land use.Especially the biophysical factors do pose constraints to land-use change at certain locations, leading to spatially differentiated pathways of change.It is not possible to classify all factors in groups that either influence the rate or location of land-use change.In some cases the same driving factor has both an influ-ence on the quantity of land-use change as well as on the location of land-use change.Population pressure is often an important driving factor of land-use conver-sions(Rudel and Roper1997).At the same time it is the relative population pressure that determines which land-use changes are taking place at a certain location. Intensively cultivated arable lands are commonly situ-ated at a limited distance from the villages while more extensively managed grasslands are often found at a larger distance from population concentrations,a rela-tion that can be explained by labor intensity,transport costs,and the quality of the products(Von Thu¨nen 1966).The determination of the driving factors of land use changes is often problematic and an issue of dis-cussion(Lambin and others2001).There is no unify-ing theory that includes all processes relevant to land-use change.Reviews of case studies show that it is not possible to simply relate land-use change to population growth,poverty,and infrastructure.Rather,the inter-play of several proximate as well as underlying factors drive land-use change in a synergetic way with large variations caused by location specific conditions (Lambin and others2001,Geist and Lambin2001).In
regional modeling we often need to rely on poor data describing this complexity.Instead of using the under-lying driving factors it is needed to use proximate vari-ables that can represent the underlying driving factors. Especially for factors that are important in determining the location of change it is essential that the factor can be mapped quantitatively,representing its spatial vari-ation.The causality between the underlying driving factors and the(proximate)factors used in modeling (in this paper,also referred to as“driving factors”) should be certified.
Other system properties that are relevant for land-use systems are stability and resilience,concepts often used to describe ecological systems and,to some extent, social systems(Adger2000,Holling1973,Levin and others1998).Resilience refers to the buffer capacity or the ability of the ecosystem or society to absorb pertur-bations,or the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before a system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control be-havior(Holling1992).Stability and resilience are con-cepts that can also be used to describe the dynamics of land-use systems,that inherit these characteristics from both ecological and social systems.Due to stability and resilience of the system disturbances and external in-fluences will,mostly,not directly change the landscape structure(Conway1985).After a natural disaster lands might be abandoned and the population might tempo-rally migrate.However,people wil
l in most cases return after some time and continue land-use management practices as before,recovering the land-use structure (Kok and others2002).Stability in the land-use struc-ture is also a result of the social,economic,and insti-tutional structure.Instead of a direct change in the land-use structure upon a fall in prices of a certain product,farmers will wait a few years,depending on the investments made,before they change their cropping system.
These characteristics of land-use systems provide a number requirements for the modelling of land-use change that have been used in the development of the CLUE-S model,including:
●Models should not analyze land use at a single scale,
but rather include multiple,interconnected spatial scales because of the hierarchical organization of land-use systems.
引
江济淮工程
●Special attention should be given to the drivingfactors of land-use change,distinguishing drivers that determine the quantity of change from drivers of the location of change.
●Sudden changes in driving factors should not di-
rectly change the structure of the land-use system as
a consequence of the resilience and stability of the
land-use system.
394P.H.Verburg and others
●
The model structure should allow spatial interac-tions between locations and feedbacks from higher levels of organization.
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Model Description
Model Structure
The model is sub-divided into two distinct modules,namely a non-spatial demand module and a spatially explicit allocation procedure (Figure 2).The non-spa-tial module calculates the area change for all land-use types at the aggregate level.Within the second part of the model these demands are t
ranslated into land-use changes at different locations within the study region using a raster-based system.
For the land-use demand module,different alterna-tive model speci fications are possible,ranging from simple trend extrapolations to complex economic mod-els.The choice for a speci fic model is very much de-pendent on the nature of the most important land-use conversions taking place within the study area and the scenarios that need to be considered.Therefore,the demand calculations will differ between applications and scenarios and need to be decided by the user for the speci fic situation.The results from the demand
module need to specify,on a yearly basis,the area covered by the different land-use types,which is a direct input for the allocation module.The rest of this paper focuses on the procedure to allocate these demands to land-use conversions at speci fic locations within the study area.
宿迁市马陵中学
The allocation is based upon a combination of em-pirical,spatial analysis,and dynamic modelling.Figure 3gives an overview of the procedure.The empirical analysis unravels the relations between the spatial dis-tribution of land use and a series of factors that are drivers and constraints of land use.The results of this empirical analysis are used within the model when sim-ulating the compe
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tition between land-use types for a speci fic location.In addition,a set of decision rules is speci fied by the user to restrict the conversions that can take place based on the actual land-use pattern.The different components of the procedure are now dis-cussed in more detail.Spatial Analysis
The pattern of land use,as it can be observed from an airplane window or through remotely sensed im-ages,reveals the spatial organization of land use in relation to the underlying biophysical and
socio-eco-
Figure 2.Overview of the modeling
procedure.
Figure 3.Schematic represen-tation of the procedure to allo-cate changes in land use to a raster based map.
Modeling Regional Land-Use Change
395
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