1. What is Discourse?
• Language does not normally consist of isolated, unrelated sentences, but instead of collocated, structured, coherent groups of sentences we can call a discourse.
2. What is Discourse Analysis?
• Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken, signed language use or any significant semiotic event.
3. What is a Speech Act?
i. A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication.
– Austin’s Speech Act Theory (speech is itself a form of action: constative vs. performative)
Austin is widely associated with the concept of the speech act theory and the idea that spee
ch is itself a form of action.
• Constative utterance is one that asserts or states something that can be judged as true or false. (e.g. He promised to give her ten dollars.)
• The performative is uttered in the performance of an illocutionary act and is either felicitous or infelicitous.(e.g. I promise to give her ten dollars. )
• 西安管材研究所
Limitation(e.g. Jocelyn got a Cartier for her birthday. ) Austin later modified his theory:
the actual utterance and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic acts corresponding to the verbal, syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance.
• illocutionary Act 以言行事行为
The semantic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning
gter• Prelocutionary Act 李泰伯以语成事行为
Its actual effect, whether intended or not
e.g. In uttering the locution "Is there any salt?" at the dinner table, one may thereby perform the illocutionary act of requesting salt, as well as the distinct locutionary act of uttering the interrogatory sentence about the presence of salt, and the further perlocutionary act of causing somebody to hand one the salt.
ii. Searle’s Speech Act Theory
– Searle’s Speech Act Theory (Assertives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives, Declarations)
• Searle has set up the following classification of illocutionary speech acts:
1) Assertives 断言类 E.G. Sam smokes habitually.
2) Directives 指令类 E.G. Does Sam smoke habitually?
3) Commissives 承诺类 E.G. Sam, smoke habitually!
4) 芳烃抽提Expressives 表达类 E.G. Would that Sam smoke habitually!
5) Declarations 宣告类 (a statement, a question, a command, and an expression of desire, respectively)
4. What is Context?
• Malinowski-- Context “must burst the bonds of mere linguistics and be carried over into the analysis of the general conditions under which a language is spoken.”
• Context includes: Firth--
1) The Participants in the situation;
2) The Action of the participants;
3) Other Relevant Features of the situation;
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4) The Effects of the verbal action.
• Social Context -- Halliday
✓ THE FIELD OF DISCOURSE 语场:
Refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place.
✓ THE TENOR OF DISCOURSE 语旨:
Refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles.
✓ THE MODE OF DISCOURSE 语式:
Refers to what part the language is playing, what is that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation.
• Function of Context:
2) 解释功能
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5. What is Cohesion?
• Cohesion is defined as a semantic concept. It is “a semantic relation between an element in the text and some other elements that is crucial to the interpretation of it”.
• Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical relationship within a text or sentence. It can be defined as the links that hold a text together and give it meaning.
• Types of cohesion
✓ Exophoric Reference 外指照应:
It is used to describe generics or abstracts without ever identifying them
✓ Endophoric Reference内指照应
•Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition.
•Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to backward in the discourse. Something is introduced in the abstract before it is identified.
2. Ellipsis & substitution 省略与替代
✓ Ellipsis happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated.
✓ Substitution means that a word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted for another, more general word.
3. Conjunction 连词
Conjunction sets up a relationship between two clauses.
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