1. Design features of language:
(1)Arbitrariness (任意性):there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a
particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.(声音和意思无直接联系) eg: why English should use the sounds /dog/ to refer to the animal dog, the
relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.
(2)Duality(双重性):the way meaningless elements of language at one
level(sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units at another level. That
is, sounds such as d, g, f, o, mean nothing separately. They normally take on
meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog, fog, and god.
2.Descriptive grammars(描写性语法): attempt to tell what is in the
language(语言第一,语法第二,语法是为语言服务)
Prescriptive grammars(规定性语法): tell people what should be in the
language.
3.Phonetics(语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they ate
produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.
It can be divided into 3 main branches:(1) articulatory phonetics(有音节的),
which is the study of how speech sounds are produced(2)acoustic phonetics(有关声音的),which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the
air(3)auditory phonetics(听觉的),which deals with how speech sounds are
perceived by the listener.
lation(同化): a phonological process whereby a sound becomes
phonetically similar to a neighboring sound ,eg: a vowel becomes when
followed by a consonant.
5.Phonology(音系学): the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds
of language.
6.Minimal pairs(最小对立体): a pair of words that differ by only a single
sound in the same position, e.g. look/ took, spill/still and keep/coop
Minimal set(最小对立体集): when a group of words can be differentiated,
each one from the others, by changing one phoneme(always in the same
position)eg: a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would
include feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, foot, and one based on consonants could have
big, pig, and wig.
7.Syllable(音节): these units which are often longer than one should and
smaller than a whole word. 1. phonetically, syllables are usually described as
consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and which sounds
comparatively ogically, syllables are defined by the way in which
vowels and consonants combine to form various sequences.
8.Stress (重音): the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.
9.Morphology (形态学):the study of the structure of words.
10.Root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are strippes from
a complex word. eg: system from un- +system + atic +ally
tional morphemes(派生词缀)可能会改变词性: a morpheme that
serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or
meaning. eg: -ment derives the noun from the verb establish; re- changes the
meaning of the verb paint to "paint again".
Inflectional morphemes(屈折词缀)不改变词性: which are not used to
produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a
word.
rphs(语素变体): a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,
e.g. -s, -es, and all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.
mentary distribution(互补分布):allophones of the same phoneme
are said to be in complementary distribution for they never occur in the same
contest. Eg: the unaspirated /p/ always occurs after /s/ while the aspirated one
always occurs in other places.
of word formation:
(1)compounding(合成构词法):words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver
are formed by putting two words together. Two free morphemes are combined to
form a compound.
(2)Derivation(派生构词法):derivation is done by adding affixes to other
words or morphemes. A derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme
and a bound morpheme. For example, by adding affixes un-, mis-, -ful, -less,
-ism, we can get words like unhappy, misunderstand, careful, careless.
(3)Blending(混成构词法): a process a single new word can also be formed by
combining two separate forms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the
beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. eg: the English
word brunch is made from breakfast and lunch.
(4)Acronym(首字母拼音词):some new words are formed from the first letters
of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words, as in NATO(North
Atlantic Treaty Organization)
(句法学): used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study
of sentence structure.
(1)Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法): also called IC Analysis,
in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into
successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent
consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word
or construction that enters into some larger construction.) eg. In the sentence
“The old man ran away,” the first division into immediate constituents would be
between “the old man” and “ran away.” The immediate constituents of “the old
man” are “the” and “old man.” At the next level “old man” is divided into “old”
and “man.” It was introduced by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield
in 1933.
(2)Recursion(递归性):the feature of recursion permits a grammar of a finite
number of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences. For example: This
is the house that jack built. /This is the cat that lived in the house that jack built.
ics(语义学): the study of linguistic meaning.
(1)Sense(意义)语言之间的关系:the inherent part of an expression’s meaning
which, together with context, determines its referent. It is also called intension.
Eg: knowing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the United
States in 2004 allows one to determine that George W. Bush is the referent.
(2)Reference(指称,参照):the relationship between words and the things,
actions ,events, and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the
relationship between the word tree and the object "tree" in the real world.
17、Pragmatics(语用学):a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.
(1)Anaphora(回指):the process where a word or phrase refers back to another
word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.
(2)Cohesion(衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the
different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different
sentences or between different parts of a nce(连贯): :the
relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse of the
sentences in a text.18、Iconicity(象似性):the major types of iconicity in
language which have frequently been proposed are those of order, distance, and
complexity.(1)Iconicity of order(顺序象似性): refers to the similarity between
temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic of
construction. (e.g. Caesar’s historic words “veni, vidi, vici”-I came, I saw, I
conquered.) iconicity of order reflects the consistency of language with human
cognition and the objective world.(2)Iconicity of distance(距离象似性):accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be
put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a
distance. That is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close
together.(3)Iconicity of complexity(复杂象似性):accounts for our tendency to
associate more form with more meaning and, conversely ,less form with less
meaning.
prototype theory(原形理论):what members of a particular community
think of as the best example of a lexical category. eg: For some English speakers
"cabbage" might be the prototypical vegetable.
l gap(词汇空缺) : the absence of a word in a particular place in a
semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there
is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull as horse covers stallion and
mare.
ative meaning(联想意义):connotative(内涵), social, affective(情感), reflective(反射), and collocative(搭配) meanings are called associative
meaning.
Reflective meaning(反射意义):is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple
conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to
another sense.
one(音位变体):a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.
tics(变音符号):is a set of symbols which can be added to the
letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.
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