怎么写literature(定稿)

怎么写literature（定稿）

第一篇：怎么写literature（定稿）

估计很多刚到外国读书的同学和我有一样的体会：第一次接触literature review，根本无从下笔。今日看到一篇帖子写的很好，故转给各位看看，希望有所帮助。

首先需要将“文献综述（Literature Review）”与“背景描述（Backupground Description）”区分开来。我们在选择研究问题的时候，需要了解该问题产生的背景和来龙去脉，如“中国半导体产业的发展历程”、“国外政府发展半导体产业的政策和问题”等等，这些内容属于“背景描述”，关注的是现实层面的问题，严格讲不是“文献综述”，关注的是现实层面问题，严格讲不是“文献综述”。“文献综述”是对学术观点和理论方法的整理。

其次，文献综述是评论性的（Review就是“评论”的意思），因此要带着作者本人批判的眼光（critical thinking）来归纳和评论文献，而不仅仅是相关领域学术研究的“堆砌”。评论的主线，要按照问题展开，也就是说，别的学者是如何看待和解决你提出的问题的，他们的方法和理论是否有什么缺陷？要是别的学者已经很完美地解决了你提出的问题，那就没有重复研究的必要了。清楚了文献综述的意涵，现来说说怎么做文献综述。虽说，尽可能广泛地收集资料是负责任的研究态度，但如果缺乏标准，就极易将人引入文献的泥沼。

技巧一：瞄准主流。主流文献，如该领域的核心期刊、经典著作、专职部门的研究报告、重要化合物的观点和论述等，是做文献综述的“必修课”。而多数大众媒体上的相关报道或言论，虽然多少有点价值，但时间精力所限，可以从简。怎样摸清该领域的主流呢？建议从以下几条途径入手：一是图书馆的中外学术期刊，到一两篇“经典”的文章后“顺藤摸瓜”，留意它们的参考文献。质量较高的学术文章，通常是不会忽略该领域的主流、经典文献的。二是利用学校图书馆的“期刊数据库检索”，能够查到一些较为早期的经典文献。三是国家图书馆，有些上世纪七八十年代甚至更早出版的社科图书，学校图书

馆往往没有收藏，但是国图却是一本不少。

技巧二：随时整理，如对文献进行分类，记录文献信息和藏书地点。做论文的时间很长，有的文献看过了当时不一定有用，事后想起来却不着了，所以有时记录是很有必要的。同时，对于特别重要的文献，不妨做一个读书笔记，摘录其中的重要观点和论述。这样一步一个脚印，到真正开始写论文时就积累了大量“干货”，可以随时享用。

技巧三：要按照问题来组织文献综述。看过一些文献以后，我们有很强烈的愿望要把自己看到的东西都陈述出来，像“竹筒倒豆子”一样，洋洋洒洒，蔚为壮观。仿佛一定要向读者证明自己劳苦功高。我写过十多万字的文献综述，后来发觉真正有意义的不过数千字。文献综述就像是在文献的丛林中开辟道路，这条道路本来就是要指向我们所要解决的问题，当然是直线距离最短、最省事，但是一路上风景颇多，迷恋风景的人便往往绕行于迤逦的丛林中，反面“乱花渐欲迷人眼”，“曲径通幽”不知所终了。因此，在做文献综述时，头脑时刻要清醒：我要解决什么问题，人家是怎么解决问题的，说的有没有道理，就行了。

第二篇：What is literature

Generally, most people have their own ideas of what

literature enrolling in a literary course at university, you

expect that everything on the reading list will be

“literature”.Similarly, you might expect everything by a

known author to be literature, even though the quality of that

author's work may vary from publication to s

you get an idea just from looking at the cover design on a book

whether it is “literary” or “pulp”.Literature then, is a form of

demarcation, however fuzzy, based on the premise that all texts

are not created have or are given more value than

ogically, literature has to do with letters, the written

as opposed to the spoken word, though not everything that is

written down is a classification, it doesn't really have

any firm boundary is recurring agreement amongst

theorists though that for a work to be called literature must

display excellence in form and ing may also be

literary by association – that is, because l is a literary

figure through his novels, his private letters are passed as

literature as common definition of literature, particularly

for university courses, is that it covers the major genres of poetry,

drama, and novel/ term also implies literary quality

and is a fairly basic view of literature because, as

mentioned in the

introduction, the meaning of the term has undergone

changes, and will no doubt continue to do

contemporary literary histories show a shift from the belles-lettres tradition, which was concerned with finding beauty, an

elevated use of language, emotional effects and moral

sentiments before something could be called three

main ways of approaching a definition of literature are relativism,

subjectivism and relativism, there are no value

distinctions in literature;anything may be called good

tivism, as the term implies, means that all

theories of literary value are subjective, and that literary

evaluation is a purely personal icism follows from

subjectivism, though it argues that though there may be real

distinctions in literary value, our subjective value systems prevent

us from knowing anything about the real tions of

literature change because they describe and clarify a reality, they

do not create the reality they it may be that

definitions tell us what we ought to think literature should

a dinner party you would be swiftly corrected if you referred to

Mills & Boon as might occur for two reasons: the

common perception of

literature as described by current definitions doesn't include

mass-market romance novels;or Mills & Boon might well be

literature, but contemporary definitions tell us it shouldn't

reason why we learn literature is that it is useful to look at some

of the things that literature ture is something that

reflects society, makes us think about

ourselves and our society, allows us to enjoy language and

beauty, it can be didactic, and it reflects on “the human

condition”.It both reflects ideology and changes ideology, just

like it follows generic conventions as well as changing has

social and political ture is the creation of another

world, a world that we can only see through reading literature.

第三篇：literature is invention

Literature Is Invention

Literature is generally considered to be a reflection of life and

social my view, literature is much more than reflection,

furthermore, it is an invention of life and tedly,

literature comes from life and belongings to such a

system that is created by the imagination and fiction, and this

system reflects not only reality and life, but also the subjective

feelings or emotions of the writers add their

feelings and imagination to literature, they are s

reveal the real nature and essence of life by their real life

experience and their art creativity, and in fictional

nature and the essence is ture is extracted,

summarized and created from real life by the ture

directly comes from the social the basis of the real life,

according to the inevitable logic of life and their own aesthetic

ideals, writers focus on processing and refining life phenomenon

so that the true nature of life can be is the

combination of writers’ subjective thinking and objective real

ture does not require reflecting the phenomena of life,

it also includes the artistic imagination and artistic

ture includes not only real phenomenon, the most

important component of literature is invention and

soul of literature is not reflecting the real literature just

reflects the real life, it must be dull and ation and

creation make literature various and lacking of artistic

processing and invention, literature just copies from life, it must

have been a unpopular and futile new writers do not

understand this truth, and always live up to copy reality, leading

to a thankless writers do not find out what is the

nature and truth of life, they regard some individual cases as the

essence of their literature just reflects the phenomenon of

r, their literature does not reflect the essence of

when literature combines the reality, life and the

imagination, creation of writers, literature is ture is

a kind of invention.

第四篇：literature

Characters of the story of an hour

There are four characters in this character has

its function to support the theme.I am going to talk about these

characters in the following of all, the flat

character: Josephine, Brently Mallard, and ine is

the sister of Louise Mallard;she has no idea about the reason of

Louise Mallard’s cares about her sister and tells her

the message of Brently Mallard’s death carefully for fear that

her sister would be too y Mallard shows at the end of

story which is the climax of the doesn’t know

anything about the tragedy of railway ds, the

friend of Brently Mallard, gets the message and sends it to

a friend, he checks the message carefully and

suffers from the sad also cares about the health of

d and goes to the Mallard’s with Josephine to check

if she is ly, the protagonist character: Louise Mallard

or is a complex are four mental

changes in her first, she is shocked by the news of her

husband’s death and unable to accept the scene she

sees is there are some thoughts crashed into her

r she feels confused and fights against

thoughts are the pleasure of mentioned it r,

her fight is severe fights in mind, she accepts the

’s the beginning of the tragedy of her

thinks about her life which is full of freedom and falls in love with

this life when her sister comes by she tries to send her

last, the time she sees her husband alive which declares

the end of her freedom she shocked and sad to is

powerless in the real she wants the freedom so much she

can’t communicate this with her they should

divorce doesn’t have a personality of

listens to her destiny not to fight for a whole, the fiction

successfully shows us a complex and powerless flat

characters are normal people who do normally when they heard

the contrast, the wife’s thoughts are more complex and

whole is meanly described by the narrator, but it is

a best way to show the thoughts of the

protagonist only says a few words, but they show her pursue for

freedom.

第五篇：American literature of naturalism

American literature of naturalism

Major representatives

re Dreiser(1871-1945)

n Crane(1871-1900)

Norris(1870-1902)

London(1876-1916)

 major concepts of literary naturalism:

 1)Humans ucontrolled by laws of heredity and

ters are considered as a combination of

inherited attributes and habits conditioned by social and

economic forces. 2)The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and

hostile to human becomes a struggle for

, the struggle of the individual to adapt to

environment, the fight for the spouse and the Darwinian idea of

“the survival of the fittest” become natural concerns of

naturalist fiction and recurrent concerns are:

systems that destroy and dehumanize;

dual experience of loss and failure. 3)The naturalists

think that the true reality is not found in the smiling aspects of

middle class life, but in the dominant forces of Nature in stopping

human desires, in keeping humans from accomplishing their

do not look at the average, but at the violent,

sensational(耸人听闻), sordid(肮脏的,卑鄙的), unpleasant, and ugly

aspects of life. Differences between naturalism and realism

1)Method of description: the truthfulness of details and

extremity.2)The object of description: lower classes who are the

typical target of determinism;

3)The purpose of life: tion by basic desires

of life, , starvation and sexual a result, the

author takes an amoral attitude toward human life, neither

condemnation nor praise;

4)Language: filthy language to represent the filthy and not

unsmiling world.5)The outlook of life: deterministic philosophy

and pessimistic outlook of life..Theodore Dreiser(1871-1945)(P298-304)

.Literary Achievements

Carrie(1900)《嘉莉妹妹》

Gerhardt(1911)《珍妮姑娘》

y of Desire《欲望三部曲》

(the Cowperwood Trilogy 《科波伍德三部曲》)：

The Financier(1912), 《金融家》

The Titan(1914), 《巨人》

The Stoic(1947)《斯多葛》

American Tragedy(1925)《美国悲剧》

Bulwalk 《堡垒》(1946)

n Crane(1871-1900)(P288-292)

Maggie: A Girl of the Streets(1893): the first novel

《街头女郎麦琪》

The Red Badge of Courage(1894): his greatest novel

《红英勇勋章》

 Other works:

The Black Riders and Other Lines(1895)

《黑骑士及其它》：a collection of poems

The Open Boat and Other Tales

《海上扁舟及其它故事》(1898, short stories)

War is Kind & Other Lines

《战争是仁慈的及其它》(1899, poetry)

Norris(1870-1902)(P277-279)

 works:

McTeague(1899)《麦克提格》

---“the first full-bodied naturalistic American novel” and

“a consciously naturalistic manifesto”

“第一部完整的美国自然主义小说”和“自然主义宣言”

---It is a classic case study of the inevitable effect of

environment and heredity on human lives.---McTeague, the hero,

a fine specimen of the “human beast” with primitive desires,

destroyed by the hereditary elements of his alcoholic father and

the adverse environment and dehumanized as a violent,

murderous brute. The Epic of the Trilogy of the Wheat

《小麦史诗三部曲》：

---A trilogy on the production, distribution, and

consumption of Octopus《章鱼》(1901)

---Frank’s best novel

The Pit《深渊》(1903)

---about the distribution and manipulation of the wheat

market, published posthumously in Wolf《豺狼》(unwritten)

London(1876-1916)(P279-281)

 Evaluation

 Jack London, whose life symbolized the power of will(the

“Superman”),was the most successful writer in America in the

early 20th Century. His vigorous stories of men and animals

against the environment, and

survival against hardships were drawn mainly from his own

experience. His work embraced the concepts of unconfined

individualism and Darwinism in its exploration of the laws of

nature. Jack London’s exceptional brightness and his

optimistic, buoyant personality eventually combined to

transform his many experiences into a working philosophy of

service and survival. He became the personification for his

readers of many of the virtues and ideals of a turn-of-the-century

Western American man and was the country’s first successful

working class ry achievements

 works:

1)His first novel, The Son Of The Wolf(1900)

《狼的儿子》;

2)His Alaska stories:

The Call Of The Wild(1903)《野性的呼唤》

---a giant pet dog Buck finds his survival instincts in Yukon,

Alaska;(P280)

---the story of a dog who becomes wild and leads a wolf

packWhite Fang(1906)《白牙》

---the life story of a wolf who comes, after many hardships

dealt him by both man and nature, to live a dog’s life with a

loving g Daylight(1910)《大天亮》

To Build A Fire(1910)《生火》

---Considered to be an all-time classic

 3)The Sea-Wolf 《海狼》(1904)

---Based on his experiences at sea;

---About the destruction of arrogant and alienate “Sea Wolf”

Larsen  4)The People Of The Abyss(1903)

《深渊中的人们》

---His report about the economic degradation of the poor

after he studied the living conditions in East End and working

class areas of London;

 5）Love of Life 《热爱生命》(1907)

---the eventual victory of an exhausted man over a sick wolf

in the fierce battle for survival under a severe natural

environment

 6)The Iron Heel 《铁蹄》(1908)

 7)Martin Eden 《马丁·伊登》(1909)

---His autobiographical novel and his masterpiece;

---one of the greatest realistic novels of late 19th century;

---presenting a penetrating criticism of America of the time;

The differences between Jack London and other naturalistic

writers in terms of the naturalistic themes?

Reference:

Similarity: focus on the influence of environment on humans’

destiny;Difference: the power of will and adaptation to the

Lee Frost(1874-1963)

 ry position

---Best known New England poet;

---One of America's leading 20th-century poets and a four-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize.(In 1924,1931,1937and 1943)

---Honors from 44 institutions, including 18 honorary

degrees from many universities, such as Oxford, Cambridge,

Harvard, Michigan, Dartmouth and etc.---The nation’s unofficial

Poet Laureate(无冕桂冠诗人)

---Invitation to read his poem, “The Gift Outright”（《全心全意的奉献》）at President Kennedy’s inauguration in

works

tions of poems:

 book of poetry: A Boy’s Will(1913)

《男孩的意愿》

volume of poetry:

North of Boston 《波士顿以北》(1914)

in Interval 《山间》(1916)

Hampshire 《新罕布什尔》(1923)

-running Brook《西去的溪流》(1928)

6.A Further Range 《又一片牧场》(1936)

7.A Witness Tree 《见证树》(1942)

 8.A Masque of Reason 《理性假面具》(1945)

 e Bush 《尖塔丛》(1947)

 10.A Masque of Mercy 《怜悯假面具》(1947)

poems

ng By Woods On A Snowy Evening 《雪夜林畔小立》

Road Not Taken 《一条为走过的路》

g Walls《补墙》

Apple-picking《摘苹果之后》

es of his poems

 g regularity of the iambic meter withthe freedom

of the speaking voice;

His ability of combining colloquial speech patterns with

traditional verse forms;

 g images and metaphors from simple country

life;Most of his well-known poetry is nature nd

ideas loaded under the disguise of plain language and

reader tend to find wit and wisdom, peace and harmony, serenity

and ing to Frost, a good poem “begins in delight and

ends in wisdom” “诗歌始于喜悦，而终于智慧”

The Road Not Taken----Robert Frost

 Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could

not travel both

 And be one traveler, long I stood

 And looked down one as far as I could

 To where it bent in the undergrowth;

 Then took the other, as just as fair, And having perhaps

the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear;

 Though as for that the passing there

 Had worn them really about the same, And both that

morning equally lay

 In leaves no step had trodden black. Oh, I kept the first

for another day!

 Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I

should ever come back. I shall be telling this with a sigh

 Somewhere ages and ages hence:

 Two roads diverged in a wood, and I-

 I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the

difference.一条未走过的路

金黄林中有两条路各奔一方---

可惜，我是一个人独自旅行

不能两条都走，我站在岔口上 向其中一条，长时间凝神眺望 直到它弯进灌木丛失去踪影。

然后走上丝毫也不差的另一条，也许，曾有更好的理由走它，因为杳无人迹，而且长遍萋草，虽然经我走后，过往行人的脚，已践踏得两条道路难分上下。

 而在那一天早晨，那两条道路 曾同样覆盖落叶，未经步履，哦，我曾想留一条以待来日涉足： 如今我懂得路是怎样连接着路，我怀疑，还有可能重新回去。

我将会在很久很久以后的某处，一声叹息，重把这往事提起，树林中曾有两条歧路，当初我---我选择了其中人迹稀少的一途，这就造成了此后的全部差异。