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英语翻译家基础:专业术语翻译

2023年12月30日发(作者：翻译器在线翻译英语)

翻译研究词典

1. Absolute Translation 绝对翻译

按照古阿德克的解释，指专业译员为应付不同翻译要求而采用的七种翻译类型之一。在绝对翻译中，整个源文本被转换成目标语，对原文内容和形式都不加以改动。

According to Gouadec, one of seven types of translation which can be used by professional

translators to respond to the various translation requirements which can arise during the course of

their work. In absolute translation, the whole of ST is transferred into TL, with no alteration to the

content or the form of the original document.

2. Abstract Translation 摘要翻译

古阿德克提出的用以应付不同翻译要求的七种翻译策略之一。摘要翻译是将源文本的全部信息扼要译出，目的是让客户“迅速得到特定类型的信息”。其方法有多种：第一种是翻译源文本的一般主题思想；第二种是概述源文本的主要内容、文本主旨及次要内容；第三种是节录源文本中一切有用的内容。

According to Gouadec, one of seven strategies proposed by Gouadec to fulfill the various

translation needs which arise in a professional environment. In abstract translation, a condensed

translation of all the information in ST is made in order to give the client "rapid access to specific

types of information". This may be done in various ways. Firstly, the generic themes of the text

may be translated; secondly, a description may be given of the generic content and the objectives

of the text and its sub-units; thirdly, an abridged translation of all the useful content of the text

may be supplied.

3. Abusive Translation 滥译

路易斯用来表示文学翻译中极端做法的一个术语。他把滥译界定为“强势的、有力的翻译，它重视尝试使用新的语言表达，对语言习惯进行改变，用符合译文自身特征的文字去对应原文的多重或多元表达手段”。

A term used by Lewis to refer to a radical alternative approach to literary translation. He

defines abusive translation as "strong, forceful translation that values experimentation, tampers

with usage, seeks to match the polyvalencies or plurivocities or expressive stresses of the original

by producing its own".

4. Acceptivity 可接受[性]

图里采用的术语，用来指可以从翻译作品中观察到的两种倾向之一。其要求是符合用目标语撰写、“读起来像原创”要求，而不是符合“读起来像原文”，因而译文也就会更有自然“感”。

A term used by Toury to denote one of two tendencies which can be observed in translated

texts. Translations which lean towards acceptability can be thought of as fulfilling the requirement

of "reading as an original" written in TL rather than that of "reading as the original" and

consequently generally have a more natural "feel".

5. Accuracy 准确

翻译评估中用来表示译文与原文相符程度的术语。通常指源文本的信息内容在目标文本中的保留程度。所谓翻译精准，一般即字面而非自由翻译。

A term used in translation evaluation to refer to the extent to which a translation matches its

original. It usually refers to preservation of the information content of ST in TT. with an accurate

translation being generally LITERAL rather than FREE.

6. Action, Translatorial 译者行动

见Translation Action [翻译行动]。

7. Adaptation 改编

1传统上用来指采用特别自由的翻译策略而作出任何目标文本的术语。通常意味着对文本作相当大的改动，以更适合特定读者或特定翻译目的。

2 维纳与达尔贝勒纳用来表达七种翻译程序之一的术语。改编是一种曲径翻译，意指翻译时不依赖源语与目标语之间存在的结构与概念上对应的形式，是一种策略。

1 A term traditionally used to refer to any TT in which a particularly FREE translation

strategy has been adopted. The term usually implies that considerable changes have been made in

order to make the text more suitable for a specific audience or for the particular purpose behind

the translation.

2 A term used by Vinay & Darbelnet to refer to one of seven translation procedures.

Adaptation is described as a type of OBLIQUE translation, which means that it doesn't rely on the

existence of structural and conceptual parallels between SL and TL. It is a strategy.

8. Adequacy 充分[性]

1 某些译评者讨论源文本与目标文本关系属性时所用的术语。有时被用作相关术语对等的同义词，有时为对等的替代词，有时则表示与对等的意义不同。

2 按照图里（Toury）的解释，指翻译过程中与规范相关的连续体的两极之一。如果译者自始至终都遵循源语、而不是目标语的语言与文学规范来翻译，那么所作出的译文就是充分的译文。

1 A term used by some commentators on translation to discuss the nature of the relationship

between ST and TT. It is used sometimes synonymously with, sometimes instead of, and

sometimes in contrast with the related term EQUIVALENCE.

2 According to Toury, one of the two poles of the continuum which relates to the NORMS

used in the translation process. A translation is termed adequate if the translator seeks throughout

to follow source rather than target linguistic and literary norms.

9. Adjustment 调整

按照奈达的解释，指《圣经》翻译中使用的一套技巧，旨在于目标语中“产生正确的对等形式”，以帮助译文达至动态对等。调整技巧包括材料的增加或减少、改变、增加注脚以及作出语言上的调整，以适应目标读者的经验。

According to Nida, a set of techniques used in Bible translation which are designed to

"produce correct equivalents" in TL and thus help a translation achieve DYNAMIC

EQUIVALENCE. Techniques used in adjustment include addition or subtraction of material,

alteration, inclusion of footnotes and modification of the language to fit the experience of the

target audience.

10. Aesthetic-Poetic Translation 美学诗体翻译

按照卡塞格兰德的解释，是四种翻译类型之一，指诗歌文本的翻译，翻译时必须尽可能保留原作品的表达手法及风格特。对译者要求很高。

According to Casagrande, one of four types of translation, which refers to the translation of

poetic texts, where it is necessary to retain the expressive and stylistic features of the author's

work to as large an extent as possible. This type of translation places heavy demands on the

translator.

11. Agent 经纪人

塞杰用来指“处于译者与译品最终使用者中间位置”之人的术语。译品经纪人可以是委托翻译的出版商，也可以是分配工作给译者的任何人。经纪人独立于作者与读者之外，决定

是否需要翻译某个文本。

A term used by Sager to refer to the person who is "in an intermediary position between a

translator and an end user of a translation". The agent of a translation may be a publisher who

commissions a translation, or any other person who assigns a job to a translator. He or she is

independent of both writer and reader and decides whether or not a document is to be translated.

12. A.I.I.C 国际会议口译联合会

为保护会议口译员利益而成立于1953年11月的组织。其宗旨包括：评估与保持其成员的语言能力水准、制定口译实务的专业与道德准则、监督工作条件和国际协议执行情况以及提高培训水准。其主要机构为代表大会与理事会。此外还就工作条件、报酬标准等事务与各种国际组织进行谈判。

An organization founded in November 1953 to protect the interests of conference interpreters.

The A.I.I.C numbers among its aims the assessment and maintaining of levels of linguistic

competence among its members, the development of professional and ethical codes of practice,

the monitoring of working conditions and agreements with international organizations, and the

improvement of standards of training. Its two main organs are the Assembly and the Council. The

A.I.I.C. further furthermore conducts negotiations with various international bodies on matters

relating to working conditions, rates of pay, and suchlike.

13. Analogical Form 类同形式

按照霍姆斯的解释，译者在翻译诗体形式时可以采用的四种途径之一。类同形式被界定为具有与源语形式在源文化中相同功能的目标语诗体形式。

According to Holmes, one of four approaches which a translator may use when translating

verse form. An analogical form is defined as a TL verse form which fulfills a similar function to

that of the SL form in the source culture.

14. Analysis 分析

奈达与泰伯用来描述翻译过程三步骤之中第一步的术语。它被界定为“包括逆转换和成分分析在内的一套程序，目的是出源文本底层的核心句，以及最清楚地理解意义，为转移做准备”。其中核心句指基本结构成分。

A term used by Nida & Taber to describe the first of the three stages of the translation process.

It is defined as "the set of procedures, including back transformation and componential analysis,

which aim at discovering the kernels underlying the source text and the clearest understanding of

the meaning, in preparation for the transfer". The term kernel refers to the basic structural

elements.

15. Appeal-focused Texts 感染型文本

见Operative Texts [运作型文本]。

16. Applied Translation Studies 应用翻译研究；应用翻译学

霍姆斯提出的研究领域，与翻译研究中的理论翻译研究及描写翻译研究相对应。应用翻译研究分为四个次范畴：译者培训，提供翻译工具，制定翻译政策和翻译批评。

The area of investigation within TRANSLATION STUDIES contrasted by Holmes with

THEORETICAL and DESCRIPTIVE TRANSLATION STUDIES. It is further divided into four

subsections: translator training, the production of translation aids, the establishment of translation

policy, and the activity of translation criticism.

17. Archaism （又写为Archaicism）古词；废词

用来指译本中使用古文（或指一例具体的此种用词）的术语。避免用词现代化，或采用古文策略来翻译较早历史时期的原作，其目的是制造一种假象，让人感到译作如同原作，并

不是现代文化的产物。

A term which refers to the use of obsolescent language in a translation (or alternatively, a

single instance of such usage). It tends to avoid modern idiom or archaize deliberately to translate

an ST which dates from an earlier historical period, in order to attempt to create the illusion that

the translation, like its original, is not a product of modern culture.

18. Architranseme （简称ATR）元译素

范·路文兹瓦特创造的术语，用来表示在文学文本与其译本之间进行详尽语言比较时所用的理论概念。它是一种理论上的共同分母，用来作为比较源文本译素的基础。反映在元译素中的共同特征，是通过源文本和目标文本共享的实义词，或通过释义的方式来表现的。

A term coined by van Leuven-Zwart to designate a theoretical concept used in the close

linguistic comparison of literary texts and their translations. It is a kind of theoretical common

denominator which is used as the basis for comparing ST and TT transemes. The common features

reflected in an architranseme are expressed in terms of the content words shared by the ST and TT

Transemes, or by pharaphrases.

19. Area-restricted Theories of Translation 关于范围的翻译理论

霍姆斯将此界定为关于语言或文化的局部翻译理论。这些理论可以解释为关于一定语对之间的翻译，也可以解释为关于一定社之间的翻译。只适用于某些（一般为西方的）文化。

Defined by Holmes as PARTIAL THEORIES OF TRANSLATION which are restricted with

regard to the languages and/or cultures which are being considered. Such theories may be

pair-restricted or group-pair restricted. In fact, they are usually only relevant to certain (generally

Western) cultures.

20. ATR 元译素

见Architranseme [元译素]。

21. Audio-medial Texts 听觉媒介型文本

见Multi-medial Texts [多媒介型文本]

22. Auftrag

见commission [委托]

23. Automatic Translation 自动翻译

见Machine Translation [机器翻译]

24. Autonomy Spectrum 自立幅度

罗斯为翻译分类提供框架而引进的一个概念，被莱顿认为是现代翻译研究的“一个重要突破”。自立幅度是一个连续体，两级分别为“源文本自立”和“目标读者需求”。通过此种方式，译本在自立幅度上的位置反映出译者和原材料的关系，以及译者与目标读者之间的关系。

A concept introduced by Rose to provide a framework for categorizing translation, described

by Leighton as "one of the important breakthroughs" of modern translation study. It is a

continuum, the two poles of which are "source text autonomy" and "target audience needs". A

translation's position on the autonomy spectrum in this way reflects the translator's relation to the

source material and the translation's relation to its intended audience.

25. Autotranslation （又名Self Translation）自译

波波维奇将此界定为“由作者本人将原作变成另一种语言的翻译”。但他认为，自译“不可被认为是源文本的变体，而是真正的翻译”；科勒认为在自译情况下，忠实的意思有所不同，因为作者兼译者会觉得有理由对文本进行改动。若细致研究，可获得对双语特性以及语言、思维和个性关系的有趣知识。

Defined by Popovië as "the translation of an original work into another language by the

author himself". However, he argues that it "cannot be regarded as a variant of the original text but

as a true translation". Koller says that the issue of FAITHFULNESS is different in the case of

autotranslation as the author-translator will feel justified in introducing changes into the text.

Closer study could yield some interesting insights into the nature of bilingualism and the

relationship between language, thought and personality.

26. Babel, Towel of 巴别塔

《圣经》故事，讲述人类为什么注定要说多种不同语言。从形而上学的角度看，巴别塔不仅可以看作是引发笔译、口译者需求的事件，而且具体说来，还是“从神学、哲学、美学、心理学以及人种学角度......对翻译理论和方法进行讨论的导火线”。

A biblical narrative explaining why man is destined to speak a multiplicity of different

languages. It can be seen metaphysically not only as the event which gave rise to the need for

translators and interpreters, but also more specifically as "the spark which set off a discussion of

translation theory from a theological, philosophical, aesthetic, psychological, and

ethnographic point of view".

27. Back-transformation 逆转换

见Analysis [分析]

28. Back-translation 回译

将已译成特定语言的文本译回源语的过程。回译程序的用途各种各样。可用于《圣经》翻译的文献、对比语言学中等等。图里认为翻译的不可逆性使所有这种普遍性结论都不成立。霍姆斯用回译作为例证，认为在时隔与诗歌翻译文本之间不可能存在任何“真正”的对等。

A process in which a text which has been translated into a given language is retranslated into

SL. It has been used for various different purposes, and can be found in the literature on Bible

translation, contrastive linguistics and so on. Toury argues that the irreversible nature of

translation makes all such general conclusions invalid. Holmes uses the evidence of

back-translation to argue against the possibility of there being an "real" WQUIVALENCE between

a poem and its translation.

29. Back Interpreting 双边传译

见Liaison Interpreting [联络传译]。

30. Bilingual Corpora 双语语料库

1 见Parallel Corpora [平行语料库]

2 有时指Multilingual Corpora [多语语料库]，又指Parallel Corpora [平行语料库]。

A term sometimes used to refer to both Multilingual Corpora and Parallel Corpora.

31. Bi-text 双文本

哈里斯引进的术语，用来指既包括源文本又包括目标文本在内的一种概念。对于译者（或双语读者）而言，这个概念是作为一种心理现实而存在的。他认为，源文本与目标文本“同时存在并紧紧交织于”译者的脑子中。他把如此出现的双文本界定为“翻译时并存于译者闹钟的源文本与目标文本”。

A term introduced by Harris to refer to a construct comprising both ST and TT, which exists

as a psychological reality for the translator (or the bilingual reader). Harris conceives ST and TT

as being "simultaneously present and intimately interconnected" in the translator's mind and

defines the resulting bi-text as "ST and TT as they co-exist in the translator's mind at the moment

of translating".

32. Blank Space 空位

见Voids [空缺]

33. Blank Verse Translation 无韵体翻译

勒弗维尔所提译诗的其中策略之一。在无韵体翻译中，译者需要满足在一般韵体可预测性与必须提供某种偶然节律变异之间达到平衡的要求，可通过诗行扩张或压缩、跨行连续以及词序变更等手段来达到。其优点是，它的准确性和文学性都优于许多韵体翻译策略。缺点是只注重源文本的一个方面，会产生笨拙的、歪曲的、有时甚至是无意义的目标文本。

Presented by Lefevere as one of 7 strategies for translating poetry. In blank verse translation,

the translator needs to observe the requirement of balancing a general metrical predictability with

the necessity of providing some occasional rhythmic variation. Both these aims can be achieved

by devices such as expansion or compression of the line, use of enjambment, and alteration of the

word order. The advantages of it are a greater accuracy and higher degree of literariness. But it

only concentrates on only one aspect of TTs which are clumsy, distorted and at times even

nonsensical.

34. Borrowing 借用

维纳与达尔贝勒纳描述的七种翻译程序之一。借用被界定为直接翻译，在这种翻译中原文本成分被“平行”的目标语成分所替代。他们将这一过程描述成最简单的翻译类型，因为它只将源语词转移到目标文本，而无须作出任何改动。

One of seven translation procedures described by Vinay & Darbelnet. Borrowing is defined

as a type of DIRECT TRANSLATION 4 in that elements of ST are replaced by "parallel" TL

elements. They describe the procedure as the simplest type of translation, since it merely involves

the transfer of an SL word into TT without it being modified in any way.

35. Calque 仿造（又名 Loan Translation [借译]）

该术语用来指把源语词项的单个成分（如单词的各个语素）直译成目标语对等成分的过程。维纳与达尔贝勒纳把仿造看做一种直接翻译，列为七种翻译程序之一。赫维与希金斯将仿造界定为五种文化置换之一。他们认为，仿造与文化借用不同，因为仿造只是仿造源语语法结构，并不逐词借用原文本的表达形式。

A term used to denote the process whereby the individual elements of an SL item (e.g.

morphemes in the case of a single word) are translated literally to produce a TL equivalent. Vinay

& Darbelnet classify calque as a type of DIRECT TRANSLATION 4 and list it as one of seven

translation procedures. Hervey & Higgins define calque as one of five types of CULTURAL

TRANSLATION. According to them, calque differs from the similar procedure of cultural

borrowing in that it appropriates only the model of SL grammatical structures, and does not

borrow expressions verbatim from ST.

36. CAT 机助翻译（全名 Computer-aided Translation 或 Computer-assisted

Translation [计算机辅助翻译]）

见 Machine-aided Translation [机器辅助翻译]。

37. Category Shift 范畴转换

卡特福德采用的术语，指两种主要类型的转换之一。所谓转换即指“从源语到目标语过程中的形式对应”的偏离。范畴转换为一般述语，可泛指四种“基本语言学理论的分类”中的任何一种。范畴转换至在不受限翻译中发生，在此类翻译中，属于某一阶段的源语项可以译为属于不同阶段的目标语项。

A term used by Catfford to denote one of two major types of SHIFT, or departure "from

formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL". The term is generic, and

may refer to shifts involving any of the four "fundamental categories of lingoistic theory".

Category shifts will occur only in UNBOUNDED TRANSLATION, where it is possible to

translate an SL item of a certain rank by a TL item of a different rank.

38. Chuchotage

见Whispered Interpreting [耳语传译]。

39. Class Shift 词类转换

范畴转换的一种，指使用属于不同语法类别的目标语词项来翻译源语词项。根据韩礼德对词类定义的理解，即指“特定单位的组别，该单位的定义须由它在上一级单位机构里的作用来决定”.词类转换一般是由于源语与目标语的语言系统不同所引起的，而并非由于译者故意作出如此选择。

A type of CATEFORY SHIFT which involves translating an SL item by means of a TL item

belonging to a different grammatical class. The term class is understood along Hallidayan lines as

being "that grouping of members of a given unit which is defined by operation in the structure of

the unit next above". Instances of class shift are generally the result of differences between the

linguistic systems of SL and TL, rather than representing a deliberate choice by the translator.

40. Close Translation 贴近翻译

一些学者（如纽马克）所用的术语，泛指强调在源语与目标语的语言单位之间保持完全对应，而不强调传递源文本总体意义或精神的翻译策略。

A general term used by some writers ( e.g. Newmark) to refer to translation strategies which

favour exact correspondence between SL and TL linguistic units over an emphasis on conveying

the overall meaning or spirit of ST.

41. Coherence 连贯

在一般用法中按照弗米尔的解释模式被界定为“文本与情景保持一致”。该术语由赖斯与弗米尔引入翻译研究。按照他们的解释，连贯有两种类型，即“内文连贯”与“互文连贯”。前者涉及到目标文本本身在目标情景中以何种方式被接受。第二种即互文连贯亦称“忠实”，它指的是存在于目标文本与源文本之间的连贯。

Defined in general terms as "the agreement of a text with its situation" after Vermeer. The

term was introduced by Reiss & Vermeer to the study of translation; according to these authors,

there are two types of coherence, intratextual and intertextual. The first of these concerns the way

in which TT per se is received in the target situation. The second type of coherence, the

intertextual is the coherence which exists between TT and ST.

42. Commission 委托

弗米尔在译者行动框架内使用的术语，指译者在做出目标文本时所遵循的工作要求。委托可以指来自客户或者其他第三方的一系列明确的指令和要求。另一方面，委托通常只是译者内化了的一系列内隐原因或选择。弗米尔认为，每一个译本都应当是以这种或那种方式建基于委托之上的，该委托首先要说明目标文本的目的，其次要说明在何种条件下达到这个目的。

A term used by Vermeer within the framework of TRANSLATION ACTION to refer to the

specifications which the translator works with when producing a TT. A commission may come

from a client or other third party as a set of explicit instructions or requirements. On the other

hand, the commission is frequently simply a collection of implicit principles or preferences

internalized by the translator. However, Vermeer argues that one way or another every ttanslation

should be based on a commission starting firstly the goal (or SKOPOS) of TT. And secondly the

conditions under which this goal should be achieved.

43. Communication Load 传意负荷（又名 Information Load [信息负荷]）

奈达在关于翻译过程的模式中所采用的术语。奈达与泰伯将此界定为“信息的难度”。奈达讨论传意负荷的基础是传意过程的模式，在此模式里，源发者通过解码者的信道，将文本信息传递出去，信道容量因接受者个人素质、教育水平和文化背景灯因素的不同而不同。传意负荷由形式与语义两种成分组成，通过信息单位数量与形式单位（即单词）数量之间的比例来量度。

A term used in Nida's model of the translation process, and defined by Nida & Taber as "the

degree of difficulty of a message". Nida bases his discussion of communication load on a model of

the communication process in which the source communicates the information contained by the

message via the decoder's (or receptor's) channel, which wil vary in capacity depending on such

factors as the receptor's personal qualities, education and cultural background. Communication

load consists of both formal and semantic elements and is measured by "the ratio between the

number of units of information and the number of formal units (i.e. words)".

44. Communicative Translation 1 传意翻译；交际翻译（又名 Communicative

Approach [传意途径；交际途径]）

用来指任何一种把翻译视作“发生于社会情境之传意过程”的途径的术语。所谓传意翻译，从典型意义上看，一般都趋向于考虑目标语读者或接受者的需要。传意翻译与逐词翻译、字面翻译或词对词翻译等类别形成对照的翻译，它把源文本措词仅仅视为译者需要予以考虑的几个因素之一。

2 纽马克将此界定为两种翻译模式之一，在此模式中“译者试图在目标语读者身上，产生相同于原文在源语读者身上所产生的那种效果”。

3 赫维与希金斯用来描述一种文化置换的术语。他们将传意翻译界定为一种自由翻译，其中涉及“在目标语中用符合语境/情景的文化对等语来替代源文本的表达形式”。

1 a term used to refer to any approach which views translation as a "communicative process

which takes place within a social context". A so-called communicative translation will typically be

generally oriented towards the needs of the TL reader or recipient. A communicative translation is

one which contrasts with, for example, INTERLINEAR TRANSLATION, LITERAL

TRANSLATION 1 or WORD-FOR-WORD TRANSLATION in that it treats the ST wording as

merely one of a number of factors which need to be borne in mind by the translator.

2 Defined by Newmark as one of two modes of translation, in which "the translator attempts

to produce the same effect on the SL readers".

3 A term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe a type of CULTURAL TRANSLATION.

They define communicative translation as a style of FREE TRANSLATION which involves "the

substitution for ST expressions of their contextually/situationally appropriate cultural equivalents

in the TL".

45. Community Interpreting 社传译（又名 Dialogue Interpreting [对话传译]、Public Service Interpreting [公共服务传译] ）

由使用环境区分的一种传译，其目的是为不会说所处社主要语言的人提供使用公共服务的机会。社传译通常是在一对一的场合，并且往往是双向传译。社传译一般是接续式传译，但又不同于接续传译本体。由于使用场合的缘故，大部分社传译都会涉及大量跨文化的换码现象。

A form of INTERPRETING which is distinguished by the contexts in which it is employed.

Its purpose is to provide access to a public service for a person who does not speak the majority

language of the community in which he or she lives. Community interpreting normally occurs in a

one-to-one setting, and tends to be bi-directional; it is generally performed consecutively, although

differs from CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETING proper. Because of the contexts where it typically

occurs, most community interpreting involves a significant element of intercultural transcoding.

46. Commutation 对换

见Textual Equivalence 1 [文本对等]。

47. Comparable Corpora 可比语料库

贝克采用的术语，指“同一语言里两组互为独立的文本集合”，其中“一个语料库由相关语言中的源文本组成，另一语料库则由该语言中译自特定源语的译本组成”。可比语料库由单语文本集合构成。其重要贡献就是“阐明了翻译文本的性质，说明翻译是一种经过了调停的交际活动”。

A term used by Baker to refer to "two separate collections of texts in the language", of which

"one corpus consists of original texts in the language in question and the other consists of

translations in that language from a given source language or languages". Comparable corpora are

monolingual collections of texts. A significant contribution is in the "elucidation of the nature of

translated text as a mediated communicative event".

48. Compensation 补偿

赫维与希金斯将此界定为“通过使用与源文本不同的手段，在目标文本中产生近似源文本的效果，以补偿源文本重要特征在翻译中走失的技巧”。他们列出四种不同类型的补偿：在种类上的补偿、用词位置上的补偿、通过词语合并进行补偿和采用分拆方式进行补偿。

A term defined by Hervey & Higgins as "the technique of making up for the translation loss

of important ST features by approximating their effects in the TT through means other than those

used in the ST". They list four different types of compensation: compensation in kind,

compensation in place, compensation by merging, compensation by splitting.

49. Competence 能力

图里用来研究某些翻译实践特征的术语。图里按照乔姆斯基著名的区分理论，把翻译能力界定为能在翻译中得到理论证实，而在很大程度上又不会实现的源文本与目标文本关系的整个系统。

A term used by Toury for investigating certain aspects of translation practice. Following

Chomsky's famous distinction, Toury defines translational competence (as opposed to

PERFORMANCE) as the total SYSTEM of ST-TT relationships which could theoretically be

manifested in a translation, but which will to a large extent remain unrealized.

50. Componential Analysis 成分分析

见 Analysis [分析]。

51. Computer-aided Translation 计算机辅助翻译（又名 computer-assisted

Translation; 简称CAT）

见 Machine-aided Translation [机助辅助翻译]。

52. Concordance 一致性

见 Verbal Consistency [词语一致]。

53. Conference Interpreting 会议传译

指用于国际会议以及其他高层次场所如讲座，电视广播或峰会的那一类口译，就此而言，它是一种按其所用场所来界定的口译形式。会遗传译者需要具备各种熟练的翻译技巧。虽然它的主要模式是同声传译，但偶尔也需要使用接续传译，甚至耳语传译。

A term used to refer to the type of INTERPRETING which occurs in international

conferences as well as other high-profile settings such as lectures, television broadcasts or summit

meetings; as such it is one of the forms of interpreting which is define according to the context in

which it is used. Conference interpreters need to be proficient in a variety of interpreting

techniques, as though SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING is the main mode used, there is also

occasional call for CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETING or even WHISPERED INTERPRETING.

54. Consecutive Interpreting 接续传译

用来指两种基本口译模式之一的术语。严格的说，接续传译只应用来指正规环境如会议或法庭里为大批听众服务的传译程序。接续传译需要一系列不同的能力与技巧，包括高水平的源语理解力、熟练的记笔记技巧、丰富的百科知识、准确的记忆与自信的语言表达方式。

A term used to refer to one of the two basic modes of INTERPRETING. Strictly speaking, tje

term should be reserved for the more rigorous set of procedures used when interpreting for large

audiences in formal settings such as conferences or courtrooms. Consecutive interpreting entails a

number of of different abilities and skills, including a high level of SL comprehension, advanced

notetaking skills, excellent general knowledge, an accurate memory and a confident manner of

delivery.

55. Constitutive Translational Conventions 建构性翻译常规

诺德提出的两种翻译常规之一。诺德把建构性翻译常规界定为“决定什么样的翻译是特定文化体可以承认为翻译”的常规。他指出，确定特定文化语境里建构性翻译常规的可行方法，是对这一语境中译者一般会采用的解决具体翻译问题的方法进行分析。

According to Nord, one of two types of translational CONVENTION. Nord defines

constitutive translational conventions as those conventions which "determine what a particular

culture community accepts as a translation". Nord suggests analyzing the solutions to concrete

translation problems which are generally adopted by translators working within that context.

56. Content-derivative Form 派生内容的形式（又名Organic Form [有机形式]）

霍姆斯采用的术语，指译者在目标语中处理诗歌翻译形式时可以采用的四种途径之一。派生内容的形式时译者“从语义材料出发，允许其在翻译过程中为获得自己独特的诗歌形式”而创造出来的形式。

A term used by Holmes to denote one of four possible approaches open to a translator when

faced with the problem of tendering verse form in TL. A content-derivative form is one which is

created when a translator "starts from the semantic material, allowing it to take on its own unique

poetic shapes as the translation develops".

57. Content-focused Texts 重内容文本

见Informative Texts [信息型文本]。

58. Contextual Consistency 语境一致

奈达和泰伯所用术语，指“翻译某个源语词项时，在接受语中采用最符合具体语境的表达形式，而不在所有语境里采用同一个表达形式”。他们认为，这一策略的采用应当优先于词语一致策略，并指出语境一致是动态对等的一个方面。

A term used by Nida & Taber to describe "the quality which results from translating a source

language word by that expression in the receptor language which best fits each context rather than

by the same expression in all contexts". They consider that such a strategy has priority over verbal

consistency, and points out that contextual consistency is one aspect of DYNAMIC

EQUIVALENCE.

59. Controlled language 受控语言

阿诺德等人将此界定为“一种语言的特殊简化版本”。这类语言版本最初被认为是“对...察觉到的语言交际问题的部分解决方法”，现在则被普遍用作改进机器翻译系统工作性能的一种手段。在此语境里，受控语言本质上是源语的一种变体。

Defined by Arnold et al. as "a specially simplified version of a language". While originally

conceived as "partial solution[s] to...perceived communication problem[s]", such languages are

now commonly used as a means of improving the performance of MACHINE TRANSLATION

systems. Within this context, a controlled language is in essence a variant of SL.

60. Conventions 常规

诺德使用的术语。他将常规界定为“规范的具体体现”，各个常规“既不是明确制定出来的，也不是具有约束力”，而仅是建立在人们的常识和共同期待的基础上。翻译常规在本质上可分为建构性翻译常规与规约性翻译常规。

A term used by Nord. He defines conventions as "specific realizations of norms"; they are

"not explicitly formulated, not are they binding", but are base simply on common knowledge and

shared expectations. Depending on their precise function, translational conventions will be either

CONSTITUTIVE or REGULATIVE in nature.

61. Corpora 语料库（单数为Corpus）

翻译研究中传统上沿用的术语，指较小规模的文本集合，（其中有些部分）供人工从中搜索特征有趣的范例。在机器翻译中，语料库被界定为“语法句子的有限集合，用作对语言进行描述性分析的基础”。在描写翻译研究中，该术语现常被理解为“一个以机读形式保存、能以各种方式被自动或半自动分析的文本集合”。

A term traditionally used in Translation Studies to refer to relatively small-scale collections

of texts, (parts of ) which are searched manually for examples of features which are of interest. In

MACHINE TRANSLATION a corpus is defined as "the finite collection of grammatical sentences

that is used as a basis for the descriptive analysis of a language". In DESCRIPTIVE

TRANSLATION STUDIES the term is now frequently understood to mean "a collection of texts

held in machine-readable form and capable of being analysed automatically or semi-automatically

in a variety of ways".

62. Correctability 可修正性

按照赖斯与弗米尔的解释，该术语指翻译行动两大特征之一。可修正性这一概念的存在，取决于实际翻译过程中以及之后，译者能否获取整个源文本与目标文本，以使译者能对目标文本作出修正。只要译者能对自己译文进行修正，译文就具有可修正性。

According to Reiss & Vermeer, one of two features which need to apply to a given act of

translation. The notion of correctability is dependent on the entire ST and TT being available to be

the translator during and after the actual process of translation as as to permit correction of TT by

the translator; it is considered to be present in those cases where the translator is able to correct his

or her work.

63. Correspondence 对应

用来指源语成分与目标语成分关系的术语，这些成分在某种意义上被认为互为对应。对应通常是一个比更常用的对等概念较为弱势的概念。但两者之间的关系，不同的人却有不同的解释。

A term used to refer to the relationship which exists between elements of SL and TL that are

in some way considered to be counterparts of each other. Correspondence is usually presented as a

somewhat weaker notion than the perhaps more frequently encountered concept of

EQUIVALENCE, although the relationship between the two terms varies from author to author.

64. Correspondences, Hierarchy of 对应层次

见Hierarchy of Correspondences [对应层级]。

65. Court Interpreting 法庭传译

由所发生语境界定的一种口译类型。该术语大多特指在法庭上发生的传译。客户通常是被告或证人，并且一般是移民。法庭传译的基本目的，是使客户能够参与法庭诉讼；因此这种传译需要双向进行。法庭传译一般采用接续传译或联络传译模式，但也可能采用其他模式如同声传译与耳语传译。

A type of INTERPRETING which is defined by the context in which it occurs. The term

most typically designates interpreting which take place in a courtroom. The client is usually the

defendant or a witness, and generally belongs to an immigrant community. The basic purpose of

court interpreting is to enable the client to participate in proceedings; such interpreting therefore

needs to be bi-directional. Court interpreting is generally CONSECUTIVE or LIAISON, although

other modes--such as SIMUTANEOUS (e.g. for high-profile televised trials and

WHISPERED)--may also be employed.

66. Covert Translation 隐型翻译

豪斯引进的术语，指两类互为对应的翻译模式之一。其目的是使目标文本的“相似性好像‘本来’就是写给源语接受者那样密切”。因此，隐型翻译可以看作是通过生成与源文本功能对等的文本，来隐藏其属于翻译文本的本质。它适用于在源文化中没有独立地位的源文本。

A term introduced by House to refer to one of two contrasting modes of translation. The

purpose is to produce a TT which is "as immediately and 'originally' relevant as it is for the source

language addressees". The production of a covert translation can therefore be viewed as an attempt

to conceal the translated nature of a TT by producing a text which is FUNCTIONALLY

EQUIVALENT to ST. Such approach is appropriate for STs which have no independent status in

the source language.

67. Cross-temporal Theories of Translation 跨时翻译理论

见 Time-restricted Theories of Translation [关于时域的翻译理论]。

68. Cross-temporal Translation 跨时翻译

见 Intertemporal Translation [互时翻译]。

69. Cultural Approach 文化途径

见 Cultural Translation 1 [文化翻译]。

70. Cultural Borrowing 文化借用

赫维与希金斯采用的术语，指把某个源语表达形式逐词转移到目标语的一种文化置换，原因是在目标语中无法到合适的对等形式。被借用的这个词语可能不经任何改动，也可能稍事修改。重要的是，所借表达形式的意思必须在目标文本的语境里一目了然。

A term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of CULTURAL TRANSLATION in

which an SL expression is transferred verbatim into TL because it is not possible to translate it by

a suitable TL equivalent. The borrowed term may remain unaltered, or it may undergo minor

alteration; however, what is important is that the meaning of the borrowed expression should be

made clear by the TT context.

71. Cultural Substitution 文化替换

比克曼与卡洛在《圣经》翻译语境中采用的术语，指处理目标文化中所缺事物或活动时可能采取的策略。他们把文化替换界定为“用接受文化中的真实所指物来表示陌生的原文所指物，两个所指物具有相同的功能”。

A term used by Beekman & Callow in the context of Bible translation to describe a possible

strategy for dealing with objects or events which are unknown in the target culture. They define

cultural substitution as "the use of a real-world referent from the receptor culture for an unknown

referent of the original, both of the referents having the same function".

72. Cultural Translation 文化翻译（又名 Cultural Approach [文化途径]）

1 非正式使用的术语，指作为跨文化或人类学研究工具的翻译类型，或指任何对文化以及语言因素反应敏感的翻译。采用文化途径的译者认为：一、每一语言都包含其所属文化的因素；二、每一文本都植根于特定文化之中；三、产生与接受文本的准则因文化不同而不同。

2 按照奈达与泰伯的解释，文化翻译在《圣经》翻译语境中是指“改变信息内容，以在某种程度上符合接受文化的解释，以及增进原文语言上并未包含的信息的翻译”。

1 A term used informally to refer to types of translation which function as a tool for

cross-cultural or anthropological research, or indeed to any translation which is sensitive to

cultural as well as linguistic factors. A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply

recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture, that every

text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary

from culture to culture.

2 Defined by Nida & Taber in the context of Bible translation as a "translation in which the

content of the message is changed to conform to the receptor culture in some way, and/or in which

information is introduced which is not linguistically implicit in the original".

73. Cultural Translation 文化移植

赫维与希金斯用来指最高程度的文化置换的术语，在这种文化置换中，源文本所包含的源文化成分被目标文化成分替换，结果所产生的文本是在目标文化语境里经过部分改写的文本。

A term used by Hervey & Higgins to denote the highest degree of CULTURAL

TRANSLATION, in which details of the source culture contained in ST are replaced by target

culture elements with the result that the text is partially rewritten in a target culture setting.

74. Cultural Transposition 文化置换

赫维与希金斯采用的意义宽泛的术语，指“译者在把源文本内容转移到目标文化语境的过程中，可能会采用的对字面翻译的各种不同程度的偏离”。其总体效果是，目标文本值包含有限的源语特征，因而看上去不那么像外国作品，而更接近目标语文化。

A general term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe "the various degrees of departure from

literal translation that one may resort to in the process of transferring the contents of a ST into the

context of a target culture". The overall effect is a TT which contains a limited number of SL

features and thus appears less foreign, and closer to the TL culture.

75. Decision-making, Translation as 翻译即抉择

用以指译者生成目标文本时经历的部分过程的术语。列维把翻译行为描述成一种抉择行为。他所说的“抉择”，是指翻译某个文本时对于特定的翻译问题有几个可能的解决方案，译者必须在这几个方案中作出选择，而所作出的每一个选择又会影响随后所要作的其他选择。威尔斯提出抉择过程中包含了四个主要因素：一是译者的认知系统；二是译者的知识基础；三是与客户或源语作者达成共识的任务说明；四是与特定文本类型相关的问题。

A term used to characterize part of the process which the translator goes through in the course

of formulating a TT. Levý describes the act of translation as one of decision-making. The term

decision Levý means a choice which needs to be taken between a number of possible solutions to

a given problem encountered while translating a text, and which will influence subsequent choices

by opening up or closing off other options dependent on the initial selection made. Wilss suggests

four main factors involved in the process of decision-making: the translator's cognitive system, his

or her knowledge bases, the task specification agreed with the client or SL author, and problems

specific to the particular text-type.

76. Definitions of Translation 翻译定义

见Translation [翻译；笔译]。

77. Degree of Differentiation 区分度（又名Degree of Precision [精确度]）

霍尼格与库斯莫尔采用的术语，指翻译源文化特有事物和词汇时使用的一种策略。此类事物对译者构成极大的困难，因为它们在源语中的文化意义根本无法完全再现于目标文本中。

A term used by Hönig & Kussmaul to refer to a strategy for translating words denoting items

of the source culture. Such items represent particularly severe problems for the translator, since

their cultural significance in SL can never be fully reproduced in TT.

78. Descriptive Translation Studies 描写翻译研究；描写翻译学

霍姆斯将此界定为纯翻译研究的两个分支之一。按照霍姆斯的解释，翻译研究这一研究领域的目的，在于“描述反映我们经验世界的翻译和译品现象”。对于描写翻译研究的目的来说，所谓翻译作品，就是“在目标文化中根据任何理由生成或认定为译文的任何目标语言的话语”。

Defined by Holmes as one of the two subdivisions of PURE TRANSLATION STUDIES.

According to Holmes, the aim of this area of the discipline of TRANSLATION STUDIES is "to

describe the phenomena of translating and translation(s) as they manifest themselves in the world

of our experience". For the purpose of Descriptive Translation Studies, a translation is taken to be

"any target-language utterance which is presented or regarded as such within the target culture, on

whatever grounds".

79. Diagrammatic Translation 图表翻译

按照阿德克，指用于满足专业环境里各种翻译需要的七类翻译（或类似翻译过程）之一。在图表翻译中，源文本内容通过图表而非文本的方式转移到目标语中。塞杰评论说，这种提供信息的方式“超越了（许多人认为的）翻译范畴”。

According to Gouadec, one of seven types of translation (or translation-like processes) which

serve to meet the various translation needs which occur in a professional environment. In

diagrammatic translation the content of ST is transferred to TL by means of a diagram rather than

by text. Sager comments that this way of providing information "exceeds what is [by many]

considered translation".

80. Dialogue Interpreting 对话传译

见Community Interpreting [社传译]。

81. Didactic Fidelity 说教忠信

按照比克曼与克洛，指用于《圣经》文本翻译的两种补充性忠信原则之一。说教忠信被界定为在必要情况下改编文本以适应目标读者不同文化的策略；它被用来翻译说教文章而非叙事文章。

According to Beekman & Callow, one of two complementary principles of fidelity which are

used in the translation of Biblical texts. Didactic fidelity is defined as the strategy of adapting the

text where necessary to fit it with the different culture of the target audience; it is used to translate

instructive rather than narrative passages.

82. Differentiation, Degree of 区分度

见Degree of Differentiation。

83. Direct Translation 直接翻译

1 一些学者使用的术语（如图里），指目标文本直接产生于最初源文本而非转译自另一

篇用其他语言所作中介译文的翻译程序。

2 被界定为译者译入而非译出其本族语的翻译类型；相反程序为逆向翻译或服务型翻译。

3 格特将它界定为两种可以采用的翻译类型之一。

4 维纳与达尔贝勒纳采用的术语，指以平行语法范畴或平行概念为基础的翻译程序。他们所提出的直接翻译类型是指借用、仿造、字面翻译等。

1 A term used by a number of writers (e.g. Toury) to refer to the type of translation procedure

in which a TT is produced directly from the original ST, rather than via another. Intermediate

translation in another language.

2 Defined as the type of translation in which the translator works into, rather than away from,

his or her native language (or language of habitual use); the opposite procedure is termed

INVERSE TRANSLATION or SERVICE TRANSLATION.

3 Defined by Gutt as one of two possible types of translation.

4 A term used by Vinay & Darbelnet to refer to translation procedures which are based on the

use of parallel grammatical categories or parallel concepts.

84. Direction of Translation 翻译方向（又名Directionality [方向性]）

用来指翻译是从医者本族语（或医者常用语）译入还是译出的术语。虽然在过去几个世纪，人们认为翻译方向问题并不重要，但现今大部分翻译活动都倾向于译入医者的本族语。

A term which refers to whether translation occurs into or out of the translator's native

language. While in past centuries the issue of direction of translation was not held to be of any

importance, most translation activity is today geared towards translating into the translator's native

language.

85. Disambiguation 消解歧义

见 Semantic Disambiguation [语义消歧]。

86. Discourse Restricted Theories of Translation 关于话语类型的翻译理论

见Text-type Restricted Theories of Translation [关于文本类型的翻译理论]。

87. Documentary Translation 文献型翻译

按照诺德，指根据目标文本应当如何在目标文化中发生作用而定义的两类翻译之一。所谓文献型翻译是指译者充当“作者与源文本接受者之间进行（源文化）交流的一种文献”。所有这类翻译的共同之处，是它们都强调源文本的某些方面或特征（如源文本的措词、语法结构所包含的地方彩），而忽视其他方面的特征。

According to Nord, one of two types of translation defined according to how TT is intended

to function in the target culture. A documentary translation is a translation which serves as "a

document of [a source culture] communication between the author and the ST recipient". What all

such types of translation have in common is that they focus on certain aspects or features of ST

(e.g. its wording or grammatical structures, or the local colour which it contains), while ignoring

others.

88. Dolmetschen（德文）口译（Interpreting）

口译[Interpreting]的标准德文用词。Dolmetschen [口译]与Übersetzen [笔译]之间的区别在于，译者对前一过程的结果，既不能在随后某个场合进行修改，也不能对它进行检查。

The standard German word for INTERPRETING. Dolmetschen should be distinguished from

Übersetzen in that the output from the former process can be neither corrected nor checked by the

translator on a subsequent occasion.

89. Domesticating Translation 归化翻译（又名Domestication [归化]）

韦努迪用来描述翻译策略的术语，在此类翻译中，译文采用明白、流畅的风格，以便使目标语读者对外来文本的陌生感降到最低度。他指出，归化翻译是英美文化中占支配地位的翻译策略，并认为它与存在于英美文化与其他文化之间的不平衡文学关系是一致的。

A term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style

is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. Venuti argues

that domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and that this

is consistent with the asymmetrical literary relations which generally exist between this and other

cultures.

90. DTS 描写翻译研究；描写翻译学

见 Descriptive Translation Studies [描写翻译研究]。

91. Dubbing 配音

用来指翻译视听材料（如电影、电视节目）的两种主要翻译技巧之一。配音这一术语在两种情况下使用：一是指“用另一种声音覆盖视听作品中的原始声音”的技巧。但该术语通常更多地用其狭义，指“对口形”配音，被界定为“根据电影中演员的口型动作调整外语对白”的过程。

A term used to refer to one of the two main techniques used in the translation of audio-visual

material such as films and television programmes. The term dubbing is used in two ways. Firstly,

it can refer to any technique of "covering the original voice in an audio-visual production by

another voice". However, the term usually refers more narrowly to lip-sync dubbing, which is

defined as the process in which "the foreign dialogue is adjusted to the mouth movements of the

actor in the film".

92. Dubrovnik Charter 杜布罗夫尼克章程

1963年国际译联（F.I.T）在杜布罗夫尼克市举行的第四届国际翻译者会议所通过的译者章程。该章程的总目标是规定译者的职责与权利及一些重要方针。它强调翻译中译者的道德行为，还强调翻译中必须忠实。该章程同时还涉及到工作环境问题。另一方面，该章程声明译者对其作品享有版权。

A Translator's Charter adopted by the F.I.T. in 1963 at the Fourth International Translators;

Conference in Dubrovnik. The general purpose of the Dubrovnik was to delineate the

responsibilities and rights of translators, and it includes a number of important recommendations.

It stressed the moral involvement of the translator in the translation, and the need for

FAITHFULNESS in translation. Working conditions were also covered. On the other hand, it

affirmed that the translator should be the copyright holder of his or her work.

93. Dynamics 动态性

见dynamic Fidelity [动态忠信]。

94. Dynamic Equivalence 动态对等

奈达在《圣经》翻译中采用的术语，用来描述翻译过程的两个基本取向之一。动态对等指翻译性质而言，在这种翻译中，“原文信息转移到接受语言，译文接受者的反应与原文接受者的反应基本上相同”。换言之，在动态对等的翻译中，译文的产生要经过三个步骤：分析、转移和重组。

A term introduced by Nida in the context of Bible translation to describe one of two basic

orientations found in the process of translation. Dynamic equivalence is the quality which

characterizes a translation in which "the message of the original text has been so transported into

the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original

receptors". In other words, a dynamically equivalent translation is one which has been produced in

accordance with the threefold process of ANALYSIS, TRANSFER 2 AND RESTRUCTURING.

95. Dynamic Fidelity 动态忠诚

比克曼与卡洛用来描述“结构上自然、内容上有意义”的《圣经》翻译术语。换言之，按照比克曼与卡洛的解释，动态忠信的译文首先必须具有目标语形式和结构上自然性的特点。其次，它必须容易被接受者理解。如果译文达到了这两个标准，那么可以说它维持了原文的“动态性”。

A term used by Beekman & Callow to describe a Bible translation which is "both natural in

structure and meaningful in content". In other words, according to them, a dynamically faithful

translation must firstly be characterized by the NATURALNESS of the TL forms and strutures

which it uses, and secondly must be easily understood by those who receive it. If these two criteria

are met, then a translation is said to be preserving the dynamics of the original.

96. Effort Models 用功模式

贾尔杜撰的术语，指他于20世纪70年代末、80年代初提出关于口译过程的一套模式。这些模式试图对口译中大量存在的固有困难进行解释，以“有助于选择和提出良好口译行为的策略和技巧”。贾尔引入“用功”这一术语来指口译过程的各个组成部分。每一个组成部分都需要获取可用处理能力，因为会占用口译者的部分注意力。

A term coined by Gile to refer to a set of models of the INTERPRETING process, which he

developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The effort models represent an attempt to explain the

considerable difficulties inherent in interpreting in a way that "should facilitate the selection and

development of strategies and tactics toward better interpreting performance". Gile introduces the

term effort to refer to these individual components of the interpreting process, each of which

makes its demands on the available processing capacity and thus occupies a share of the

interpreter's attention.

97. Emprunt

见Borrowing [借用]。

98. Equivalence 对等（又名translation Equivalence [翻译对等]）

1 许多学者用来描述源语和目标语文本或更小语言单位之间关系性质和范围的术语。就这个意义而言，对等在某种程度上是指语内同义词在不同语言之间的对应形式。

2 维纳与达尔贝勒纳用来指七种翻译程序之一的术语。对等是一种曲径翻译，它不依赖于源语和目标语之间存在的平行范畴。按照他们的解释，对等是指“用完全不同的措词来复制和原文一样的情境”的一种程序。

1 A term used by many writers to describe the nature and the extent of the relationships

which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller linguistic units. As such, equivalence is in some

senses the interlingual counterpart of synonymy within s single language.

2 A term used by Vinay & Darbelnet to refer to one of seven translation procedures.

Equivalence is a kind of OBLIQUE translation, which means that it does not rely on the uses of

parallel categories existing in SL and TL. According to Vinay & Darbelnet, equivalence is a

procedure which "replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different

wording".

99. ESIT 巴黎高等翻译学校

见 Interpretive Theory of Translation [翻译释意理论]。

100. Ethnographic Translation 种族学翻译

卡塞格兰德提出的四种翻译类型之一。其目的就是说明源文本的文化背景及其在人类学上的意义，说明“两种语言中表面上对等的信息要素”在意义上的区别。通过翻译本身或解

释性的注释可能达到这一目的，但有时也需要说明。

One of four classifications of translation proposed by Casagrande. The aim of an

ethnographic translation is to explicate the cultural background and anthropological significance

of ST and the differences in meaning between "apparently equivalent elements of messages in the

two languages"; this may be achieved in the translation itself, or in explanatory annotations.

Explication would also be needed.

101. Ethnolinguistic Model of Translation 翻译的种族语言学模式

奈达用此术语来描述在《圣经》翻译中很常见的一种情形，译者在两种习得的语言之间进行翻译，即在原文的希腊文或希伯莱文与译者印欧语言之外的现代语言之间进行翻译。按照奈达的解释，在这种情况下，译者通常要运用其本族语——通常为英语或者其他西欧语言——来工作。这种情形当然不太理想，但却往往无可避免。

A term used by Nida to describe the situation, common in Bible translation, in which the

translator translates between two languages both of which he or she has acquired, namely the

Greek or Hebrew of the original, and a modern, often non-Indo-European language. According to

Nida, this situation usually requires the translator to work through his or her native language,

which is usually English or another Westerm European language. Such a situation is of course less

than ideal, although is frequently inevitable.

102. Excluded Receiver 非目标接受者

皮姆用此术语指不能参与某个文本信息的读者（或听者），因为该文本显然不是对他们说的。

A term used by Pym to denote a reader (or listener) who is unable to participate in the

message of a text because it is explicitly not addressed to him or her.

103. Exegetic Translation 诠释性翻译

赫维与希金斯将其界定为“一种在目标文本中把源文本中未能明确传达出的额外细节加以表述、解释的翻译类型”。换句话说，指“目标文本同时对源文本内容进行扩充和解释”的翻译类型。如此一来，从所传达的信息量来看，它和要旨翻译策略形成鲜明的对照。

Defined by Hervey & Higgins as "a style of translation in which the TT expresses and

explains additional details that are not explicitly conveyed in the ST", or in other words one in

which "the TT is, at the same time, an expansion and explanation of the contents of the ST". As

such it contrasts sharply with the strategy og GIST TRANSLATION in terms of the amount of

information that is conveyed.

104. Exegetical Fidelity 诠释忠信

按照比克曼与卡洛的解释，此术语用来指严格按照正确理解原文信息进行翻译的原则。对他们而言，正确“诠释”的概念，即通过仔细研究源文本及参考书籍，如词典、文法、评论等，确定“原作者的用意”，至关重要。

According to Beekman & Callow, a term used to describe the principle of basing a translation

strictly on a correct understanding of the original message. For them, the notion of correct

exegesis -- or determining the "meaning intended by the original author" by means of a careful

study of ST and of reference works such as lexicons, grammars and commentaries--is of central

importance.

105. Exoticism 异国情调

赫维与希金斯将其界定为文化置换的最低程度。源文本的语言和文化特征只作了很少改动或未经改动就转移到目标文本中，结果目标文本看起来就有一种明显的“外国”味。这可能是为了使目标文本对目标语读者更有吸引力，但这种做法对目标语读者产生了一种源语文

本对源语读者所未有的影响，因为对源语读者来说，源文本决无外国情调。

A term defined by Hervey & Higgins as the lowest degree of CULTURAL TRANSLATION.

Linguistic and cultural features of ST are taken over into TT with little or no adaptation, so that TT

has an obvious "foreign" appearance. This may be deliberate, in order to make TT more attractive

to the TL audience, but it affects the TL audience in a way that ST did not affect the SL audience,

for whom the text was in no way foreign.

106. Expectancy Norms 期望规范

切斯特曼用来指两类翻译规范之一的术语。切斯特曼认为，目标文本的读者对于译文应当是什么样的、译文与本族语文本相比较或相对照应当具有什么特点有所期待，这些期待就确立了期望规范。他认为，这些规范不仅有反映翻译实践的功能，而且还有指导翻译实践的功能。

A term used by Chesterman to refer to one of two types of translation NORMS. According to

Chesterman, expectancy norms are established by TT readers' expectations of what translations

should be like and how they should compare or contrast with native texts. He understands the

function of norms as being not only to reflect translational practice but also to regulate it.

107. Explicitation 明示

维纳与达尔贝勒纳提出的术语。用通常语言来说，明示是指这样一种现象，即目标文本往往以比原文更明确的形式来陈述源文本的信息。此过程是通过译者补充源文本而产生的。

A term introduced by Vinay & Darbelnet. Explicitation can be characterized in general terms

as the phenomenon which frequently leads to TT stating ST information in a more explicit form

than the original. Such a process is brought about by the translator filling out ST.

108. Expressive Texts 表情型文本（前称Form-focused Texts [重形式文本]）

赖斯用来指三种主要文本类型之一的术语。表情型文本的主要特点是它们包含了一种审美成分，因为作者“为了艺术性、创造性地交流思想，会利用语言的各种可能的表达及联想手段”。这意味着，翻译此类文本时，译者在重现原文语义内容时应致力于如何创造出一种类似的审美效果。

A term used by Reiss to refer to one of three main text-types. The major characteristic of

texts of the expressive type is that they include an aesthetic component, as the author "exploits the

expressive and associative possibilities of the language in order to communicate his thoughts in an

artistic, creative way". This means that when translation such texts the main concern of the

translator should be to try to produce an analogous aesthetic effect, as well as reproducing the

semantic content of the original.

109. External Transfer 外部转移

见Transfer 1 [转移]。

110. Extraneous Form 外来形式

霍姆斯提出的术语，描述将诗歌翻译成目标语时的四种策略之一。按照霍姆斯的解释，选择这种方法的译者“将元诗[即源文本]打造成一种绝非原文在形式或内容上所隐含的形式”。霍姆斯将这种策略描述为“偏离”，因为它从各方而来说都不是从原诗派生而来。

A term suggested by Holmes to describe one of four strategies for rendering verse form in TL,

according to Holmes, the translator who opts for this approach "casts the metapoem [] into a

form that is in no way implicit in either the form or the content of the original". He describes this

strategy as "deviant" as it does not derive from the original poem in any way.

111. Faithfulness 忠实（又名Fidelity [忠信]）

这两个英语词都是普通术语，用以描述按照某种标准，一个目标文本在多大程度上介意

被看作是源文本的恰当代表。在传统的翻译讨论中，忠信这一概念可能是衡量翻译质量的最基本、运用最广泛的准绳；然而近些年来，它已被对等等概念所取代。

General term used to describe the content to which a TT can be considered a fair

representation of ST according to some criterion. In traditional discussions of translation the

concept of fidelity has probably been the most basic and widely used yardstick for measuring

translation quality, however, it has more recently been replaced by notions such as

EQUIVALENCE.

112. False Friends 假朋友

用于描述形式上相同或非常相似但意义不同，从而最终导致翻译（一般来说实际上是语际交流）困难的源语和目标语词项的标准术语。假朋友现象是由历史机缘造成的。另外，假朋友有时相互之间仅是内涵意义不同。

A standard term used to describe SL and TL items which have the same or very similar form

but different meanings, and which consequently give rise to difficulties in translation (and indeed

interlingual communication in general). The phenomenon of false friends is caused by historical

chance. In addition, sometimes false friends differ from each other only connotatively.

113. Faux Amis 假朋友

见False Friends [假朋友]。、

114. Fictitious Translation 假翻译

见Pseudotranslation 1 [伪翻译]。

115. Fidelität 忠信

见coherence [连贯]。

116. Fidelity 忠信

见Faithfulness [忠实]。

117. F.I.T. 国际译联（英文全称：International Federation of Translators）

翻译者组织的协会，于1953年成立于巴黎。二战后，翻译者开始形成他们自己的协会，来自法国、西德、意大利、挪威、丹麦、土耳其的翻译者先锋社团签署了宪章，建立了国际译联。1954年3月18日被授权作为一个国际性协会运作。

An association of translators' organizations founded in Paris in 1953. Translators had begun

to form their own associations after WWII, and the charter establishing F.I.T. was signed by

pioneer societies of translators from France, West Germany, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Turkey.

F.I.T. was authorized to operate as an international association by a ministerial order of 18 March

1954.

118. Foreignizing Translation 异化翻译（又名Minoritizing Translation [小众化翻译]；[少数化翻译]）

韦努迪使用的术语，指生成目标文本时会通过保留原文中某些异国情调的东西来故意打破目标语惯例的翻译类型。他将异化翻译描述为一种“民族偏离的压力”，并因而认为它具有“记录外来文本的语言和文化差异，使读者置身国外”的作用。

A term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which

deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.

Describing foreignizing translation as an "register the linguistic", Venuti thus sees its role as being

to "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad".

119. Form-derivative Forms 派生形式的形式

霍姆斯创立的一个普通术语，用以指诗歌形式翻译的两种策略，即类同形式与模仿形式。采用派生形式的方法，译者就得选取能在一定程度上反映源文本诗体特征的目标诗体，从而

就把这两种策略就与那些派生内容的形式和外来形式所表示的策略区分开来。

A general term devised by Holmes to refer to the two strategies of verse form translation

which he terms ANALOGICAL FORM and MIMETIC FORM. When using a form-derivative

approach the translator selects a target verse form which in some way reflects that of ST; thus

these two strategies are distinguished from those denoted by the terms CONTENT-DERIVATIVE

FORM and EXTRANEOUS FORM.

120. Form-focused Texts 重形式文本

见Expressive Texts [表情型文本]。

121. Formal Correspondence 形式对应

按照卡特福德的模式，当一个目标语范畴在“目标语言‘系统’中的位置与特定源语范畴在源语系统中占据的位置‘同等’时，两者之间就存在一种形式上的关系，这种关系叫形式对应。”与文本对等相对，这是一个建立在对源语与目标语作形式对比的基础之上的理论的、系统的范畴。

According to Catford's model, a formal relationship which exists when a TL category can be

found which occupies "the 'same' place in the 'economy' of the TL as the given SL category

occupies in the SL". In contrast to TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE 1, this is a theoretical, systemic

category which is established on the basis of a formal comparison on SL and TL.

122. Formal Equivalence 形式对等（又名Formal Correspondence [形式对应]）

奈达将形式对等定义为“两种不同的对等类型”之一。这种对等“强调信息本身，既强调信息的形式也强调信息的内容”。这样，形式对等指“源文本的形式特征在接受语中被机械复制的翻译特性”。形式对等反映的是一个总体倾向而不是一种绝对的技巧。

Defined by Nida as one of "two different types of equivalence", which "focuses attention on

the message itself, in both form and content". Formal equivalence is thus the "quality of a

translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced

in the receptor language". Formal equivalence represents a general orientation rather than an

absolute technique.

123. Formal Equivalent 形式对等[语]

奈达用该术语指目标语中与源语某个词或词组最贴切近的、不依赖上下文的对应项。但是一种语言中并非所有的词语都可以在另一种语言中到形式对等[语]。奈达认为，在旨在达到高度形式对等而非动态对等的译文中，即使在上述上下文中，往往存在一种尽可能使用形式对等[语]的倾向。

A term used by Nida to refer to a TL term which represents the closest decontextualized

counterpart to a word or phrase in SL. However, not all items in one language will have formal

equivalents in another. Nida argues that, in a translation which is aiming for a high degree of

FORMAL rather than DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE, there will be a tendency to use formal

equivalents wherever possible, even in contexts like those described above.

124. Forward-transformation 前向转换

见Restructuring [重组]。

125. Free Translation 自由译

指更侧重译出读起来自然地目标文本，而不是完整保留源文本措词的一种翻译类型，又称为意对意翻译，与字面翻译和词对词翻译相对。在语言学上，可以把它界定为“超出必要层次使内容不变并遵守目标语规范”的翻译。与字面翻译相比，自由译通常是更加以“目标语为取向的”。

A type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a naturally reading TT than

to preserving the ST wording intact: also known as SENSE-FOR-SENSE TRANSLATION, it

contrasts with LITERAL and WORD-FOR-WORD TRANSLATION. Linguistically it can be

defined as a translation "made on a level higher than is necessary to convey the content unchanged

while observing TL norms".free translations are thus generally more "TL-oriented" than literal

translations.

126. Full Translation 全文翻译

按照卡特福德的模式，此术语用以指整个文本都加以翻译的一种翻译类型；换句话说，“源文本的每一部分都为目标文本材料所替换”。因此，在这种目标文本中，不论是较长的段落还是单个的词汇，都不存在任何源文本成分。

According to Catford's model, a term used to refer to the kind of translation in which the

entire text is translated, or in other words, "every part of the SL text is replaced by TL text

material". Such a TT will consequently contain no SL elements at all, whether extended passages

or single lexical items.

127. Function-oriented Translation Studies 功能取向翻译研究；功能翻译学（又名Function-oriented Descriptive Translation Studies [功能取向描写翻译研究；功能描写翻译学]）

指霍姆斯定义的三类描写翻译研究之一。这类方法关注的是分析译文在接受文化与社会背景下的功能，它尤其关注如下问题：特定文化选择或不选择什么样的文本为翻译对象、这种选择产生了什么样的影响。

Defined by Holmes as one of three types of DESCRIPTIVE TRANSLATION STUDIES.

This approach is concerned with analyzing the function of translations in the context of the

recipient cultural and social setting, and typically addresses such questions as which texts were or

were not selected for translation by a particular culture, and what influences were exerted as a

result of such selection.

128. Functional Equivalence 功能对等

用来指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型的术语，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。尽管这一术语为许多学者所使用，或许给它提供最系统的定义的是豪斯。豪斯的目的是为评估翻译质量提供方法。因此，她的功能对等概念基本上是评价性的。

A term used to refer to the type of EQUIVALENCE reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt

the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced. While the

term is used by a number of writers, it is perhaps defined most systematically by House. House's

aim is to develop a methodology for assessing translation quality, and so her concept of functional

equivalence is basically evaluative.

129. Functional Equivalent 功能对等[语]

按照奈达的观点，指用来翻译某一源文本词汇或短语的一个目标语词语；该翻译不是为了追求与源文本词语在形式上的相似，而是为了使目标语读者更加清楚地理解原文的语境意义。采用功能对等而不是形式对等往往是旨在取得较高程度动态对等翻译的一个特征。

According to Nida, a TL item chosen to translate an ST word or phrase not for its formal

similarity to this ST item but because it offers target readers a clearer understanding of the

contextual meaning of the original. Use of functional rather than formal equivalents tends to be a

feature of translations which aim for a high degree of DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE.

130. Games, Translation and Theory of 翻译与博弈论

此概念建立在翻译过程与游戏活动进行的类比之上。首次作此类比的是维特根斯坦。他

把“将一种语言翻译成另一种语言”包括在一系列语言游戏的例子之中。然而，是列维第一次把这个概念用于翻译专题讨论中。在早期研究的基础上，列维指出，翻译类似于象棋。这样，每做一个抉择，译者便为随后的一些抉择创造了语境。翻译过程与这类游戏（又称“完整信息游戏”）之间的另一个更重要的类似之处在于：尽管这些抉择不是随意的，但它们仍然受主观倾向的影响。

A concept based on a parallel between the translation process and the activity of

game-playing originally suggested by Wittgenstein, who includes "translating from one language

into another" in a list of examples of language games. However, the idea was first exploited in a

discussions specifically devoted to translation by Levý. On the basis of the earlier work, Levý

argues that translation resembles chess. Each time a decision is made the translator creates the

context for a number of subsequent decisions. On further important parallel between the

translation process and this type of game (termed games with complete information) is that, while

the decisions are non-random, they may still be inspired by subjective preferences.

131. Gap 空隙

见Voids [空缺]。

132. Gemeinte, Das (Intended Meaning) 所用意义

见Tertium Comparationis [第三对比项]。

133. General Theories of Translation 普通翻译理论

霍姆斯用来指翻译理论研究两个分支理论之一的术语。普通翻译理论被界定为“能适应多个因素，可以解释、预测翻译过程与翻译结果中各种现象，而不包括翻译之外各种现象的范围广而全面的理论”。

A term used by Holmes to refer to one of two branches of THEORETICAL TRANSLATION

STUDIES. A general theory of translation is defined as "a full, inclusive theory accommodating so

many elements that it can serve to explain and predict all phenomena falling within the terrain of

translating and translation, to the exclusion of all phenomena falling outside it".

134. Generalization 1 宽泛化（又名Modulation Generalization [调适/宽泛化]）

指范·路文兹瓦特模式中用以对比文学文本与其译本的书友。宽泛化被定义为调适这种类型，在这一类型中，源文本与目标文本译素之间的差异具有如下特征，即在目标文本中译素向更宽泛的概念转换。在此意义上，它与具体化形成对照。

2 见Generalizing Translation [宽泛化翻译]。

1 A term used in van Leuven-Zwart's model for comparing a literary text with its translation.

Generalization is defined as the type of MODULATION 2 in which the dissimilarity between ST

and TT TRANSEMES is characterized by a SHIFT towards greater generality in TT; as such it

contrasts with the opposite phenomenon of SPECIFICATION.

135. Generalizing Translation 宽泛化翻译（又名Generalization [宽泛化]）

赫维与希金斯用该术语指在目标语中用比所译源语表达方式更宽泛、更抽象的表达方式来翻译的情形。他们认为，如果目标语中没有其他合适的选择，省略的细节可以从目标文本上下文中到，或者无关紧要，那么宽泛化翻译是可以接受的。然而，他们认为，在于上面所述情形相反时，或是省略的细节不能在目标文本的其他地方得到补偿时，这一策略是不可接受的。

A term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe a situation where TL uses an expression which

is wider and less specific than the SL expression it translate. According to them, generalizing

translation is acceptable if TL has no suitable alternative, or if the omitted detail may be gleaned

form the TT context or is just not important. However, they consider this strategy unacceptable in

circumstances contrary to the above, or if the omitted detail cannot be COMPENSATED for

elsewhere in TT.

136. Gist Translation 要旨翻译

翻译讨论中一个常见的术语，赫维与希金斯用以指“一种翻译类型，在这类翻译中，目标文本表达的是源文本内容的浓缩版”。换言之，要指翻译是一种提供“源文本梗概”的翻译。在赫维与希金斯的框架内，从它提供的细节数量来说，要旨翻译与诠释性翻译形成对照。

A term common in discussions of translation, and used by Hervey & Higgins to refer to "a

style of translation in which the TT expresses a condensed version of the contents of the ST"; in

other words, a gist translation is one which provides "a synopsis of the ST". Within Hervey &

Higgins' framework gist translation contrasts with EXEGETIC TRANSLATION in terms of the

amount of detail which it provides.

137. Gloss Translation 释词翻译

按照奈达的解释，释词翻译指译者试图“尽可能从字面上与意义上复制原文的形式与内容”。在此意义上，释词翻译代表了通常与形式对等相联系的方法。它可以用作学习辅导，并有使目标语读者更深刻地了解源语与文化因素的优点。

According to Nida, the kind of translation in which the translator tries "to reproduce as

literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original". As such, gloss

translation typifies the approach usually associated with FORMAL EQUIVALENCE. It might be

of use as a study aid, and has the advantage of giving the TL reader deeper insight into elements of

source language and culture.

138. Glücken

见Success [成功]。

139. Goal Language 目的语

见Target Language [目标语]。

140. Grammatical Analysis 语法分析

见Analysis [分析]。

141. Grammatical Translation 语法翻译

卡特福德将其定义为一类受限翻译，在这类翻译中，“源语文本的语法为对等的目标语文本语法所替代，但其词汇没有被替代”。语法翻译与词汇翻译正好相反。

Defined by Catford as a type of RESTRICTED TRANSLATION in which "the SL grammar

of a text is replaced by equivalent TL grammar, but with no replacement of lexis". Grammatical

and LEXICAL translation are the converse of each other.

142. Grammatical Transposition 语法置换

赫维与希金斯使用的术语，指“源文本中特定词性为目标文本中其他词性所代替或强化的现象；只要源语与目标语之间存在明显的句法结构差异，就必然导致这类替代与强化”。赫维与希金斯指出，尽管他们采用语法置换这一术语来区分这类现象与文化置换现象，但其他一些学者将语法置换简单地称为置换。

A term used by Hervey & Higgins to refer to "the replacement or reinforcement of given

parts of speech in the ST by other parts of speech in the TT, whenever this is made necessary by

significant differences of syntactic configuration between the SL and the TL". Hervey & Higgins

point out that while they use the term in order to distinguish the phenomenon from CULTURAL

TRANSPOSITION, some other writers refer to it simply as TRANSPOSITION.

143. Graphological Translation 字形翻译

按照卡特福德的解释，这是一种受限翻译。他认为，可以将字母（或其他字符如表意符

号）简化成一种由数个区别性特征组成的表述形式。为了使某一文本带有“洋”味，排印人员有时候就会采取一种类似于字形翻译的方法，这类例子在广告中特别常见。

According to Catford, a type of RESTRICTED TRANSLATION. Catford argues that it is

possible to reduce letters (or other graphological units such as ideograms) to description in terms

of a number of distinctive features. An approximation to graphological translation is sometimes

practised by typographers in order to give a text an "exotic" flavor; instances of this are

particularly common in advertising.

144. Hermeneutic Motion 诠释步骤

由斯坦纳提出的一种描述文学翻译过程的模式。斯坦纳把翻译过程所表现的“诠释步骤”细分为四个阶段（或步骤）。它们是：“信任”或“信念”；“入侵”、“渗透”或“解读”；“合并”、“体现”或“挪用”；“补偿”、“归还”或“忠信”。

A model introduced by Steiner to describe the process of literary translation. Steiner

subdivides the "hermeneutic motion" represented by the translation process into four stages (or

moves). They are: trust or faith; aggression, penetration or decipherment; incorporation,

embodiment or appropriative use; compensation, restitution or fidelity.

145. Hierarchy of Correspondences 对应层级

霍姆斯将此界定为译者设立的优先次序。霍姆斯认为，在翻译中，特别在文学翻译中，所得到的“不是任何严格意义上的文本‘对等’，而是一个程度各异的‘对应’或‘匹配’的网络”。译者通过给予优先次序而建立起对应层级。

Defined by Holmes as the order of priorities set up by the translator. Holmes argues that what

is achieved in a translation--and particularly in the case of literary translation--is "not textual

equivalence in any strict sense of the term, but a network of correspondences, or matchings, with a

varying closeness of fit". The translator establishes a hierarchy of correspondences, by giving

priority.

146. Historical Fidelity 历史忠信

比克曼与卡洛采用的术语，用来表示指导《圣经》翻译的两种互补的忠信原则之一。历史忠信被界定为不将历史情节移植至目标情境的策略，其基本信念是基督教信仰植根于历史之中。

A term used by Beekman & Callow to refer to one of two complementary principles of

fidelity which should guide the translation of Biblical texts. Historical fidelity is defined as the

strategy of not transplanting historical narratives into a target setting, and is based on the

conviction that the Christian faith is rooted in history.

147. Homophonic Translation 同音翻译

见Phonemic Translation [音素翻译]。

148. Horizontal Translation 横向翻译

福勒纳创造的术语，用来指中世纪所用的两类翻译之一。福勒纳将横向翻译界定为“有相似结构和紧密文化联系的语言之间”的翻译。换言之，在横向翻译中，源语和目标语具有作为语言的相似价值，无一方拥有特权。但横向翻译的另一个特点是，它模糊了翻译、拟译、为注明出处的借用以及原创之间的区别。

A term coined by Folena to refer to one of two types of translation used in the Middle Ages.

Folena defines horizontal translation as translation "between languages with a similar structure

and a strong cultural affinity". In other words, in horizontal translation both SL and TL have a

similar value as languages in that neither has any special prestige. Horizontal translation, however,

is also characterized by a blurring of the distinction between translation, IMITATION,

unacknowledged borrowing and original creation.

149. Hyperinformation 超额信息

赖斯与弗米尔将此界定为由译员添加的信息，目的是补偿听着可能缺乏的、正确理解信息所必需的任何文化背景知识。

Defined by Reiss & Vermeer as information which is interpolated by the interpreter in order

to compensate for the hearer's possible lack of any cultural background knowledge which is

necessary for a proper understanding of the message.

150. IA

见Information Offer [信息提供]。

151. Identity 同一[性]

一系列用来指源语文本和目标文本意义（及其他特征）彼此关联方式的术语之一。但同一与其他诸如充分、对应、对等和不变性之类的概念不同，它暗示着一种比其他术语更紧密的关系。因此，多数学者避免使用此术语。

One of a series of terms used to refer to the way ST and TT meaning (and other features)

relate to each other. However, identity contrasts with such notions as ADEQUACY,

CORRESPONDENCE, EQUIVALENCE and INVARIANCE in that it implies a much loser

relationship than these other terms. For this reason most writers have shied away from using the

term.

152. Idiomatic Translation 地道翻译（又名Idiomatic Approach [地道译法]）

比克曼与卡洛在《圣经》翻译领域采用，拉尔森更为宽泛地用此术语指旨在使译文读起来尽可能自然的翻译策略。地道翻译被界定为一种“与源语意义相同，但用接受语的自然形式表达”的翻译，一种“保留意义而非形式”的翻译。其目的是通过使译本读起来像目标语中的原创作品，向新读者再现原文。

A term used by Beekman & Callow in the field of Bible translation, and by Larson more

generally, to refer to a translation strategy which aims for a TT which reads as naturally as

possible. The aim of such a meaning-based method is to reproduce the same message for a new

audience in the form of a translation which reads like a text originally composed in TL.

153. Idiomaticity 地道性

见Idiomatic Translation [地道翻译]。

154. Imitation 拟译

1 按照17世纪学者德莱顿解释，拟译是翻译的三种可能方法之一。德莱顿用拟译这一术语表示别处称之为自由译的概念。他将此译法的特征描述为译者“不仅认为自己有权变换字词和意义，还可在认为适当的适合将两者都摒弃”的过程。

2 按照勒弗维尔的界定，拟译是他称之为解释的翻译策略的两种从属类型之一。他将拟译界定为创造一首“新”诗。这样，源文本只不过是拟译作者的灵感源泉，由此生成的译本必须要看作是“另一个作品”。

1 According to the 17th century writer Dryden, one of three possible methods of translating.

Dryden uses the term imitation to refer to what is otherwise known as FREE TRANSLATION. He

characterizes the approach as a process in which the translator "assumes the liberty, not only to

vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion".

2 According to Lefevere, one of two sub-types of the translation strategy which he terms

INTERPRETATION. He defines imitation as the creation of a "new" poem. Thus ST will simply

serve as a source of inspiration for the imitation-writer, who produces a text which must be

considered a "different work".

155. Indeterminacy 不确定性

对意义和翻译进行哲学讨论时使用的概念。广泛地说，不确定性这一术语指语内和语际交际过程中都不可避免出现的模糊性，但不同学者以不同的方式用此术语。

A concept used in philosophical discussions of meaning and translation. Broadly speaking,

the term indeterminacy refers to the unavoidable ambiguity which arises in both interlingual and

intralingual communication; however, it has been used by different writers in different ways.

156. Indirect Translation 间接翻译（又名Intermediate Translation [中介翻译]、Mediated Translation [中继翻译]、Retranslation [转译]、Second-hand

Translation [二手翻译]）

1 用来指目标文本不直接译自最初源文本，而转译自以另一语言为中介的翻译过程的术语。按照图里的解释，这样的翻译程序当然受规范约束，不同的文学系统对间接翻译容忍的程度不同。

2 按照格特的解释，指两种可能的翻译类型之一。间接翻译被界定为译者在面临两难境地，即“需要让接受语读者接触到原文的真正含义，而不受译者解释的影响”和“需要尽可能清晰地表达”时，偏重后者而采用的一种翻译策略。

1 A term used to denote the procedure whereby a text is not translated directly from an

original ST, but via an intermediate translation in another language. According to Toury, such a

procedure is of course NORM-GOVERNED, and different literary SYSTEMS will tolerate it to

varying extents.

2 according to Gutt, one of two possible types of translation. Indirect translation is defined as

the strategy used by the translator when the dilemma between "the need to give the receptor

language audience access to the authentic meaning of the original, unaffected by the translator's

own interpretation effort" and "the urge to communicate as clearly as possible" is resolved in

favour of the latter.

157. Industrial Process, Translation as 翻译即产业过程

塞杰用来指为促进、加快翻译过程或降低翻译成本而采用的自动和半自动化的翻译程序，如机器翻译和机器辅助翻译。塞杰认为，机器翻译系统的设计说明，需要以专门研究此类翻译的理论模式为基础。

A term used by Sager to refer to the use of automatic and semi-automatic routines to facilitate,

accelerate or lower the cost of the translation process. Sager argues that the design specifications

for machine translation systems need to be based on theoretical models specifically created to

account for this type of translation.

158. Information Load 信息负荷

见Communication Load [传意负荷]。

159. Information Offer 信息提供（又名Offer of Information [信息提供]）（德文Informationsangebot, 简称IA）

弗米尔用以取代斯坦将文本描述为给接受者的一系列“指示”的观点而提出的一种说法。信息的每一次解读，本身就可以看作一次新的“信息提供”，或是“关于某一信息提供的信息提供”，弗米尔认为，至少有两类这样的“二级”信息提供：评注和翻译。

A term suggested by Vermeer as an alternative to Stein's description of a text as a collection

of instructions to the recipient. Each interpretation of a message may be seen as a new informatio

offer in its own right, or "information offer about an information offer",

160. Informationsangebot

见Information Offer [信息提供]。

161. Information Texts 信息型文本（前称Content-focused Texts [重内容文本]）

按照赖斯的解释，指三种主要的文本类型之一。翻译信息型文本时，主要目的是向接受者传递信息。这意味着，译者应当致力于建立语义对等。

According to Reiss, one of three main text-types. In the case of informative texts the primary

aim is one of conveying information to the receiver. This means that a translator should

concentrate on establishing semantic EQUIVALENCE, and only then turn to other kinds, such as

connotative or aesthetic.

162. Initial Norms 初始规范

由图里界定为指导生成目标文本的若干基本规范之一。指“译者（自觉或不自觉的）对译本主要目的的选择，此目的支配着翻译过程中的所有决策”。

Defined by Toury as one of a number of basic types of NORM which guide the production of

a TT. The initial norm refers to "the translator's (conscious or unconscious) choice as to the main

objective of his translation, the objective which governs all decisions made during the translation

process".

163. Instrumental Translation 工具型翻译

诺德采用的术语，指依据目标文本在目标文化中试图达到的不同功能而界定的两类翻译之一。按照诺德的解释，工具型翻译力图满足目标文化中某个新的交际目的，而“不令接受者觉察到，其所读所听的文本曾以另外的形式在其他交际行为中使用过”。根据源功能与目标功能之间的确定关系，工具型译本可分为三类：保留功能的译本、改编和对应译本。工具型翻译只要求目标文本与原文本在功能上相容，而不要求与原文本的功能同一或者对等。

A term used by Nord to refer to one of two types of translation defined according to how TT

is intended to function in the target culture. According to Nord, an instrumental translation is

intended to fulfil a new communicative purpose in the target culture "without the recipient being

conscious of reading or hearing a text which, in a different form, was used before in a different

communicative action". Depending on the precise relationship between source and target functions,

it can be classified as belonging to one of three types: function-preserving, adapted, and

corresponding translation. Instrumental translation differs from House's comparable concept of

COVERT TRANSLATION in that in only requires the TT function to be compatible, rather than

identical or equivalent, with that of ST.

164. Integral Translation 整合翻译

范·路文兹瓦特采用的术语，指“没有超越句子层面之增减”的一种翻译。鉴于这种对比方法主要依赖于源文本和目标文本微观结构特点的细致比较，此种方法显然指适用于整合翻译译本及其源文本。

A term used by Leuven-Zwart to refer to a translation which "contains no additions or

deletions transcending the sentence level". In view of its basic reliance on a close comparison of

the microstructural features of ST and TT, such a method is only applicable to integral translations

and their STs.

165. Intercultural Cooperation 跨文化合作

见Translatorial Action [译者行动]。

166. Interlanguage 中间语言

见Translationese [翻译体]。

167. Interlineal Translation 隔行翻译

赫威和希金斯创造的术语，指极端偏重源语的翻译类型。他们认为隔行翻译“不一定回遵循目标与语法，但是每一个语法单位与源文本相对应”。

A term coined by Hervey & Higgins to refer to the type of translation which is at the extreme

of SL bias. They suggest that an interlineal translation "does not necessarily respect TL grammar,

but has grammatical units corresponding to every grammatical unit of the ST".

168. Interlinear Translation 逐行翻译

一种极端的字面翻译类型，在这种翻译中，目标语词语逐行出现在它们所对应的源文本项目的下面（或上面）。

A type of extremely LITERAL translation in which TL words are arranged line by line below

(or above) the ST items to which they correspond.

169. Interlingua 语际语言

见Tertium Comparationis [第三项对比]。

170. Interlingual Translation 语际翻译

按照雅各布森的解释，指三类翻译之一。他把语际翻译定义为“借助某种其他语言来对不言语符号所进行的解读”。

According to Jakobson, one of three types of translation. He defines interlingual translation

as "an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language".

171. Intermediate Translation 中介翻译

见Indirect Translation 1 [间接翻译]。

172. Internal Transfer 内部转移

见Transfer 1 [转移]。

173. Interpretation 解释

按照勒弗维尔的解释，指诗歌翻译的七种可能策略之一。他区分两类解释：拟译和改译。

According to Lefevere, one of seven possible strategies for translating poetry. He

distinguishes two types of interpretation, IMITATION 2 and VERSION 2.

174. Interpreting 口译；传译

用来指口头信息或口头文本的口头翻译的术语。可以通过口译发生的语境区分出各种口译类别（如社传译、会议传译和法庭传译），或通过口译进行的方式区分各种口译类别（如接续传译、联络传译、同声传译和耳语传译）。

A term used to refer to the oral translation of a spoken message or text. Various types of

interpreting can be distinguished, either by the content in which it occurs (e.g. COMMUNITY

INTERPRETING, CONFERENCE INTERPRETING and COURT INTERPRETING) or the way

in which it is carried out (e.g. CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETING, LIAISON INTERPRETING,

SUMULTANEOUS INTERPRETING and WHISPERED INTERPRETING).

175. Interpretive Theory of Translation 翻译释意理论（又名Interpretative

Theory of Translation; 或Theory of Sense [意义理论]）

该术语用来指一种翻译模式，该模式最初用来反映会议传译所涉及的过程。该理论的基本原则之一是，口译应当以从整个语境派生出来的、非语言化的预期意义为依据，而不应当以原文本的词语为依据。按照该模式，口译不重视为源文本项目寻直接的翻译对等形式，而是“致力于寻表达特定时间和特定语境下某个特定意思的恰当措词，无论该措词是什么...也不论原来的措词换一种情况下会是什么意思”。

A term used to designate a model originally designed to reflect the processes which are

involved in CONFERENCE INTERPRETING. One of the theory's principle tenets has been that

interpreting should be based on a deverbalized, intended meaning (the sense or sens) derived from

the overall context, rather on the words of ST as such. Thus according to the model interpreting

ignores the need to identify direct translation equivalents for ST items and instead "concentrates

on finding the appropriate wording to convey a given meaning at a given point in time and in a

given context, whatever the original wording may mean under different

circumstances".

176. Intersemiotic Translation 符际翻译（又名Transmutation [符际转化]）

雅各布森创造的术语，用来指三类翻译之一。符际翻译被界定为“用一种非言语符号系统的符号来解释言语符号”。

A term coined by Jakobson to refer to one of three types of translation. Intersemiotic

translation is defined as "an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonvebal sign

system".

177. Intertemporal Translation 互时翻译（又名Cross-temporal Translation [跨时翻译]）

该术语指对某个学者在某个更早时期写的（或是关于某个更早时期的）文本的翻译。互时翻译实际上是一种极其普遍的现象。

A term used to refer to the translation of a text by an author writing in (or about) an earlier

time. Intertemporal translation is in fact a very widespread phenomenon.

178. Intralingual Translation 语内翻译（又名Rewording [换词]）

雅各布森用来指三类翻译之一的术语。他将语内翻译过程界定为“用同一语言的符号对其他符号进行的解释”。

A term used by Jakobson to refer to one of three types of translation. He defines the process

of intralingual translation as "an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same

language".

179. Intra-system Shift 系统内转换

按照卡特福德的解释，指范畴转换的一种类型，产生于“源语和目标语具有结构形式基本对应的系统，但在翻译中又需要在目标语系统中选择不对应词语”的时候。通常是由于源语和目标语在结构上的要求相互冲突而译者被迫使用的。

According to Catford, a type of CATEGORY SHIFT which occurs when "SL and TL possess

systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation

involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system".intra-system shifts are generally

forced on the translator by the conflicting demands of SL and TL structure.

180. Invariance 不变性

指表示翻译过程中源文本（成分）不变概念的术语。

A term used to denote the concept of the immutability of (elements of) ST in the translation

process.

181. Invariant 不变量

见Invariance [不变性]。

182. Inverse Translation 逆向翻译

该术语用来指从译者母语（或译者通常使用的语言）出发的书面或口头翻译。逆向翻译的替代术语是服务型翻译。

A term used to describe a translation, either written or spoken, which is done from the

translator's native language (or language of habitual use). An alternative term for inverse

translation is SERVICE TRANSLATION.

183. Invisibility 隐形

见Domesticating Translation [归化翻译]。

184. Kernel 核心（又名Kernel Sentence [核心句]）

见Analysis [分析]。

185. Keyword Translation 关键词翻译

按照古阿德克的解释，指满足职业环境下不同翻译要求的七种翻译类别（或类似翻译过程）之一。这种特定类型涉及把源文本关键词译成目标语，以决定源文本所包含信息是否需要进一步解释，以及在有此需要时应该怎样翻译。

According to Gouadec, one of seven types of translation (or translation-like processes) which

serve to meet the various translation needs which arise in a professional environment. This

particular type involves keywords in ST being translated into TL to determine whether or not the

information contained in ST requires fuller translation and, if so, how it should be translated.

186. Kohäenz

见coherence [连贯]。

187. Kontrollierbarkeit

见Verifiability [可核实性]。

188. Korrigierbarkeit

见Correctability [可修正性]。

189. Lacunes 空白

见Voids [空缺]。

190. Leipzig School 莱比锡学派

指以莱比锡大学理论和应用语言学系为基地的一有影响的翻译学者。莱比锡学派以语言学的、科学的方法研究翻译，其主要研究以科技翻译问题为中心。

An influential group of translation scholars based in the Department of Theoretical and

Applied Linguistics at the University of Leipzig. The Leipzig School is characterized by a

linguistic, scientific approach to the study of translation, and most of their work has centred

around the problems of scientific and technical translation.

191. Level Shift 层次转换

卡特福德用来指两种主要转换类型之一的术语，亦即指“在源语到目标语过程中”对形式对等的偏离。层次转换的概念不仅包括源语和目标语言系统之间不相容的情况，而且也包括译者决定要以某种方式来翻译某一源语词项的情况。

A term used by Catford to denote one of two major types of SHIFT, or departure from

FORMAL CORRESPONDENCE "in the process of going from the SL to the TL". The notion of

the level shift includes not only instances of incompatibility between the SL and TL linguistic

systems, but also occasions where the translator has simply decided to translate an SL item in a

certain way.

192. Lexical Translation 词汇翻译

卡特福德用来指受限翻译的术语，在此种翻译中“文本的源语词汇被对等目标语词汇替换，但是语法未作替换”。

A term used by Carford to refer to a type of RESTRICTED TRANSLATION in which "the

SL lexis of a text is replaced by equivalent TL lexis, but with no replacement of grammar".

193. Lialson Interpreting 联络传译（又名Bilateral Translation [双边传译]）

凯斯界定的一种口译类型，指“某个操两种语言的人为谈话中两个或两个以上彼此母语不同的人所做的调停”。

Defined by Keith as a type of INTERPRETING in which "an individual who speaks two

languages mediates in a conversation between two or more individuals who do not speak each

other's tongue".

194. Lingna Unlversalis 普遍语言

见Tertium Comparationis [第三对比项]。

195. Linguistic Approach 语言学途径

见Linguistic Translation 1 [语言翻译]。

196. Linguistic Equivalence 语言对等

按照波波维奇的解释，在对等的四种类型之一。波波维奇将语言对等界定为“在原文和译文的语言（语音、词素和句法）层次上的成分同质”。

According to Popovič, one of four types of EQUIVALENCE. Popovič defines linguistic

equivalence as "homogeneity of elements upon the linguistic (phonetic, morphological, and

syntactic) levels of the original and the translation".

197. Linguistic Translation 语言翻译（又名Linguistic Approach [语言学途径]）

1 本术语用来指把翻译简单地看作是用“对等”的目标语单位替代源文本语言单位，而不考虑诸如语境或内含意义等因素的任何一种翻译方法。

2 指卡塞格兰德提出的四种翻译类型之一。本术语用于描述词对词翻译，甚至语素对语素翻译，在这样的翻译中，源文本片段依次译为最接近的目标语对应单位。

3 奈达与泰伯用于《圣经》翻译语境的术语，指这样一种翻译：“在此种翻译中，只把原文中在语言上暗含的东西明白表达出来，并且所有形式变化都符合逆转换与转换规则，也符合成分分析的规则。

1 A term used to refer to any approach which views translation as simply a question of

replacing the linguistic units of ST with "equivalent" TL units without reference to factors such as

context or connotation.

2 One of four classifications of translation proposed by Casagrande. The term is used to

describe a WORD-FOR-WORD or even morpheme-for-morpheme translation in which ST

segments are translated sequentially into the most closely corresponding TL units.

3 A term used by Nida & Taber in the context of Bible translation to refer to a translation "in

which only information which is linguistically implicit in the original is made explicit and in

which all changes of form follow the rules of back translation and transformation and of

componential analysis".

198. Linguistically Creative Translation 语言创造性翻译

赖斯与弗米尔用此术语指这样的翻译，其源文本包含了目标语中不存在的文化词语、概念或其他项目，因此必须在目标语中创造出新形式。

A term used by Reiss & Vermeer to denote the translation of an ST which contains cultural

terms, concepts or other items which are not native to TL and for which new TL labels

consequently need to be designed.

199. Literal Translation 字面翻译；直译

1 用语言学术语来界定，字面翻译是一种“不足以使内容不变而又遵循目标语规范”的翻译。奈达将字面翻译的肥年表述为形式对等。维纳和达尔贝勒纳将它列为七种翻译程序直译。认为它是一种直接翻译。

2 勒弗维尔把字面翻译界定为诗歌翻译的七种可能的策略之一。该方法有严重的局限性。

1 A literal translation can be defined in linguistic terms as a translation "made on a level

lower than is sufficient to convey the content unchanged while observing TL norms". The notion

of literal translation has been formalized by Nida as FORMAL EQUIVALENCE, while Vinay &

Darbelnet categorize it as a type of DIRECT TRANSLATION 4, listing it as one of seven

translation procedures.

2 Defined by Lefevere in the course of an analysis of English translations of a poem by

Catullus as one of seven possible strategies for translating poetry. The method has severe

limitations.

200. Literalism 字面译法；直译法

与字面翻译用法相同的术语（或指运用该种翻译方法的单个场合）。尽管字面译法适于特定文本类型（如法律文件）的翻译，但文学作品的字面翻译则受到大多数当代评论者的批评。

A term used in the same way as LITERAL TRANSLATION 1 (or refer to a single occasion

in which this type of approach is applied). While literalism is appropriate to the translation of

certain types of text (such as legal documents), most modern commentators condemn the literal

translation of literature.

201. Loan Translation 借译

见Calque [仿造]。

202. Logeme 原素

拉多采用的术语，指“与翻译性质和任务相对应的”一个单位。原素的定义为：“（译者）在建构目标文本时必须区分和复制的源文本成分”。

A term used by Radó to refer to a unit which "corresponds to the character and tasks of

translation". A logeme is defined as the "element of the ST [the translator] has to distinguish and

then to reproduce while composing the TT".

203. Logos 逻各斯

见Pure Language [纯语言]。

204. Low Countries Group 低地国家学派

见Manipulation School [操纵学派]。

205. Loyalty 忠诚

诺德采用的术语，所描述的观点能够理想地反映出译者与源文本作者兼信息发出者、以及目标文本读者之间的关系。诺德认为，忠诚是“作为交际过程参与者的人际关系中不可缺少的道德标准”。

A term introduced by Nord to describe the attitude which should ideally characterize the

translator's relationship to the ST author and sender, and the TT reader. Nord describes loyalty as

"a moral principle indispensable in the relationship between human beings, who are partners in a

communication process".

206. Machine-aided Translation （简称MAT [机助翻译]）机器辅助翻译（又名Computer-assisted Translation [计算机辅助翻译]、Machine Aided Human

Translation [机器辅助人工翻译]、Machine-assisted Human Translation [机器辅助人工翻译]、Machine-assisted Translation [机器辅助翻译]）

塞杰把它界定为“译者使用计算机程序处理部分翻译过程的一种翻译策略”。此类系统的主要目的，都是加速人工翻译速度。它们因而在本质上具有高度的互动性，需要大量人工干预。

Defined by Sager as "a translation strategy whereby translators use computer programs to

perform part of the process of translation". The main purpose of such systems is to accelerate the

process of human translation; they are thus highly interactive in nature and require a large amount

of human intervention.

207. Machine Translation 机器翻译（又名Automatic Translation [自动翻译]）

（简称MT [机译]）

用来指全部或部分由计算机进行翻译的术语。这种翻译可在、也可不在人工干预下进行。

A term used to refer to translation which is performed wholly or partly by computer. Such

translation may be carried out with or without human intervention.

208. Manipulation 操纵

见Manipulational School [操纵学派]与Rewriting [重写]。

209. Manipulational School 操纵学派（又名Low Countries Group [低地国家学派]）

一些人采用的术语，指以一种特定方法研究翻译文学的一学者。这个学派最重要的人物包括伊文—左哈、霍姆斯、范·路文兹瓦特、图里等。他们的出发点是公开承认的操纵，他们关注的是文学翻译而非科技翻译。他们对学科的最大贡献是所提出的目标文本取向的翻译途径以及规范、重写、文化多元系统等概念。

A term used by some to refer to the group of scholars associated with a particular approach to

the study of translated literature. The group's most important texts include Even-Zohar, Hermans,

van Leuven-Zwart & Toury. Their starting-point is "admitted manipulation". Their concern is on

literary rather than technical translation. Their most important contributions to the discipline are

probably the use of a TARGET TEXT0ORIENTED approach, and the notions of NORMS,

REWRITING and the literary POLYSYTEM.

210. Mapping 图谱

霍姆斯用来指两种不同目的的一个概念。他认为“所有译文都是地图，领土则是原文”。

A concept used by Holmes for two separate purposes. He observes that "all translations are

maps, the territories are the originals".

211. MAT 机助翻译

见Machine-aided Translation [机助翻译]。

212. Matricial Norms 矩阵规范

图里把它界定为两种操作规范之一。在实际翻译过程中，各种矩阵规范支配着译者如何决定对句子层面之上的文本进行组织。

Defined by Toury, as one of two kinds of OPERATIONAL NORM. Matricial norms regulate

the decisions which the translator will make during the actual process of translation regarding the

organization of the text on a level above that of the sentence.

213. Mediated Translation 中继翻译

见Indirect Translation 1 [间接翻译]。

214. Mediating Language 中介语言

见Tertium Comparationis [第三项对比]。

215. Medium-restricted Theories of Translation 关于媒介的翻译理论

根据霍姆斯的解释，指六类局部翻译理论之一。关于媒介的翻译理论所关注的，可能只是人工翻译、机器翻译或机助翻译等等，或更具体地说，它指包含人工翻译的某个特殊媒介，如同声传译或书面翻译。

According to Holmes, one of six varieties of PARTIAL THEORY OF TRANSLATION. A

medium-restricted theory of translation may for example be concerned with human, MACHINE or

MACHINE-AIDED TRANSLATION, or might more specifically encompass one particular

medium of human translation, such as SIMULANEOUS INTERPRETING or written

TRANSLATION.

216. Metaphrase 词译（又名Verbal Translation [词语翻译]）

德莱顿用来指三种翻译方法之一。德莱顿将词译界定为“将原著逐词逐行地从一种语言翻译成另一种语言”的过程。换言之，这个术语表示的过程就是字面翻译表示的过程。

A term used by Dryden to refer to one of three process of "turning an author word by word,

and line by line, from one language into another". In other words, the process which this term

denotes is that of LITERAL TRANSLATION.

217. Metapoem 元诗

霍姆斯在巴特斯的“元语言”基础上创造出来的术语。霍姆斯用元诗指第四类文本类型，即韵文翻译。元诗是“一种与它从中派生出来的诗完全不同的物体”。元诗作者必须有批评家的悟性、诗人的感性以及解决源语与目标语规范矛盾的特殊技巧。

A term coined by Holmes on the basis of Barthes' meta-language. Holmes uses the term

metapoem to designate the fourth text-type, the verse translation. Aa metapoem is "a

fundamentally different kind of object from the poem from which it derives". A metapoet must

thus combine the perception of the critic, the sensibility of the poet and the special skill of

resolving the confrontation of source and target NORMS.

218. Metatext 元文本

波波维奇采用的术语，用来描述以另一个文本作为起始点或起始模式而生成的文本。

A term used by Popovič to describe a text which has been produced using another text as its

starting-point or model.

219. Metrical Translation 韵律翻译

勒弗维尔所描述的七种韵文翻译的策略之一。勒弗维尔用韵律翻译这个术语来指源文本韵律在目标文本中得到保留的那种翻译。他认为韵律翻译因此只侧重于源文本的一个方面，而忽略其他更重要的特征；这样一来，它“完全不能使源文本在目标语言中作为文学作品出现”。

Described by Lefevere as one of seven strategies for translating verse. Lefevere uses the term

metrical translation to refer to the type of translation in which the metre of ST is preserved in TT.

He argues that metrical translation concentrates on one aspect of ST, while neglecting other more

important features; in doing so, it "fails completely to make the source text available as a literary

work of art in the target language".

220. Mimetic From 模仿形式

根据霍姆斯的解释，指四种韵文翻译的策略之一。按照这一策略，原文的形式在目标文本中得到保留。使用模仿模式，其效果是“由于它的奇特，因而也就强化了目标语读者看来是原诗语义信息中固有的那种奇特”。

According to Holmes, one of four strategies for the translation of verse form, in which the

form of the original is retained in TT. Use of mimetic form has the effect of "re-emphasizing, by

its strangeness, the strangeness which for the target-language reader is inherent in the semantic

message of the original poem".

221. Minimax Principle 最小最大原则

列维在讨论翻译的“语用维度”时采用的术语，指译者可能要面对的非文本问题。根据最小最大原则，在任何翻译中都会涉及的抉择过程中，译者“要在所有可能的方案中，决定选用能以最小努力取得最大效果的那个方案”。

A term used by Levý during a discussion of the "pragmatic dimension" of translation, which

means non-textual concerns that the translator is likely to face. According to the minimax

principle, during the DECISION-MAKING process which is involved in any translation, the

translator "resolves for that one of the possible solutions which promises a maximum of effect

with a minimum of effort".

222. Minoritizing Translation 小众化翻译

见Foreignizing Translation [异化翻译]。

223. Modification 调整

按照范·路文兹瓦特，指翻译过程中可能出现的源文本与目标文本译素之间的三类转换之一。上述两个译素与其对应的元译素构成下义关系时，这两个译素之间所构成的整体关系则为对照关系，这是，转换就是一种调整。

According to van Leuven-Zwart's model for comparing a literary work with its translation,

one of three types of SHIFT which may occur between ST and TT TRANSEMES during the

translation process. A shift is said to be an example of modification when each of the two

transemes is hyponymically related to its corresponding ARCHITRANSEME, so that the overall

relationship which obtains between them is one of contrast.

224. Modulation 调适

1 维纳和达尔贝勒纳用来指七种翻译方法之一的术语。调适是一种曲径翻译，意思是它不使用相似的源语和目标语范畴。维纳和达尔贝勒纳将调适通俗地界定为“因观念变化引起的信息形式的变化”。

2 按照范·路文兹瓦特的解释，指三种可能的微结构转换之一。如果一个译素与其元译素是同义关系，而另一个与其译素是上下位关系，或换言之，如果出现在源文本与目标文本译素之间的转换提高或降低了概括性程度，那么，这两个译素之间的关系就被看作是一种调适关系。

1 A term used by Vinay & Darbelnet to refer to one of seven translation methods. Modulation

is a kind of OBLIQUE translation, which means that it does not involve the use of parallel SL and

TL categories. Vinay & Darbelne define modulation in general terms as "a variation of the form of

the message, obtained by a change in the point of view".

2 According to van Leuven-Zwart, one of three possible microstructural SHIFTS. The

relationship between the transemes is considered to be one of modulation "if one has a synonymic

relationship with the [architranseme] and the other a hyponymic relationship", or in other words, if

a shift occurs between ST and TT transemes which either increases or decreases the degree of

generality.

225. Modulation/Generalization 调适/宽泛化

见Generalization [宽泛化]。

226. Modulation/Specification 调适/具体化

见Specification [具体化]。

227. Monosemierung

见Semantic Disanbiguation [语义消歧]。

228. MT 机译

见Machine Translation [机器翻译]。

229. Multilingual Corpora 多语语料[库]

贝克把它界定为“基于......相似设计标准之上的一套套用不同语言写成的两种或多种单语语料库”。按照理解，该术语是指有关语言中的本族语语料库而非翻译文本语料库。

Defined by Baker as "sets of two or more monolingual corpora in different languages, built

up...on the basis of similar design criteria"; the term is understood as referring to CORPORA of

native rather than translated texts in the language represented.

230. Muti-medial Texts 多媒介型文本（前称Audio-medial Texts [听觉媒介型文

本]）

赖斯用来指补充其基本文本类型的辅助文本类型的术语。这类文本的译者需要确保其译文同原文一样适合在相关媒介中使用。

A term used by Reiss to refer to a subsidiary text-type which supplements Reiss' basic text

typology, the translator of such texts will need to ensure that the translation is equally suited as the

original for use in the relevant medium.

231. Multiple-stage Translation 多阶段翻译

沃格林提出的“一套程序，用以清楚表明一种语言的话语用另一种语言重述时所遵循的工作阶段”。

Suggested by Voegelin "as a set of procedures for showing explicitly the stages of work

followed when an utterance in one language is re-uttered in another".

232. Mutation 变异

范·路文兹瓦特用来指源文本和目标文本译素之间出现的第三类转换。如果两个译素之间不能建立起任何关系，那么就可以说出现了变异。按照范·路文兹瓦特的解释，变异有三类：“增加从句或短语；删除子句或短语；以及彻底改变意思”。

A term used by van Leuven-Zwart to denote the third category of SHIFT which may occur

between ST and TT TRANSEMES. Mutation is said to have occurred if no relationship can be

established between the two transemes. According to van Leuven-Zwart there are three types of

mutation: "addition of clauses or phrases, deletion of clauses or phrases, and radical change of

meaning".

233. Nairobi Declaration 内罗毕宣言（又名Nairobi Recommendation [内罗毕倡议]）

指联合国教科文组织于1976年11月22日通过的一项宣言。该倡议书旨在保障翻译者得到与其完成任务所需技能相称的社会认可，并改善他们工作所处的、通常恶劣的环境，而不论他们有无固定工资，是全职还是兼职，也不论是文学翻译还是科技翻译。该文件的主要内容，就是翻译者应该享有与作家们类似的权力。

A declaration adopted by UNESCO on 22 November 1976. The intention of the

recommendation is to ensure that translators--whether salaried or unsalaried, full or part time,

literary, scientific or technical--are accorded recognition commensurate with the skill required to

carry out their task, and to improve the often unfavourable conditions in which they are obliged to

work. One of the document's main concerns is that translators should receive rights similar to

those enjoyed by authors.

234. Naturalness 自然性

此术语用以指译文在目标语中语言表达清晰、不矫揉造作的程度。

A term used to refer to the extent to which a translation is expressed in clear, unforced terms

in TL.

235. Necessary Degree of Differentiation 必要区分度（又名Necessary Degree of

Precision [必要精确度]）

见Degree of Differentiation [区分度]。

236. Negative Shift 负面转换

波波维奇将其界定为因译者误解而引起的一种错误的翻译方案（或称误译）。这种误译可能是由于译者不熟悉该语言，或者是对源语结构的解读过于肤浅造成的。

Defined by Popovič as an incorrect translational solution (or mistranslation) caused by a

misunderstanding on the part of the translator. Popovič states that this may be due to the fact that

the translator is unfamiliar with the language, or has interpreted an ST structure superficially.

237. Nitra School 尼特拉学派

指最初以前捷克斯洛伐克的尼特拉教育学院为基地的一斯洛伐克学者，包括列维、波波维奇等成员，他们以俄国形式主义者以及布拉格语言学派的一些著作作为起点，对文学翻译特点开展研究。

A group of Slovak scholars originally based at the Nitra Pedagogical Faculty in former

Czechoslovakia. The group, which included Levý, Popovič among its members, took some of the

work of the Russian Formalists and the Prague linguistic circle as its starting-point in an

investigation of some aspects of literary translation.

238. "No Leftover" Principle “无遗留”原则

按照图里的解释，指描写翻译分析中采用的一种技巧。该原则的目的，是为单个源文本片段与目标文本片段之间建立准确关系而提供指引。“无遗留”原则指导研究者将目标文本的一个片段仅仅视为一个替代，在该片段的边界之外，“对某个由源文本的一个片段所表现的翻译问题，不论替代片段与源文本片段在级阶和范围上是相同还是不同，其解决方案不存在任何遗留”。

According to Toury, a technique used in DESCRIPTIVE translation analysis. The purpose of

the principle is to act as a guideline for establishing the precise relationship between individual ST

and TT segments. The "no leftover" principle guides the researcher to identify as a replacing

segment only a TT segment beyond the boundaries of which "there are no leftovers of the solution

to a translation problem which is represented by one of the source text's segments, whether similar

or different in rank and scope".

239. Norms 规范

在讨论翻译现象时常见的一个术语。我们可以通俗地表述：“规范...起着引导语汇集的作用，因为它把问题标志（即具体话语和用法）归结为某一特定规范可以使用的问题类型”。在图里提出的三分模式中，规范被界定为“特定文化或文本体系中，优先于其他可行策略而被反复采用的翻译策略”。

A term frequently encountered in discussions of translational phenomena. It is possible to

state in general terms that: "perform a channelling, funnelling role in that they prefer

problem tokens, i.e. individual utterances and occurrences, to problem types, to which a given

norm can be applied ". In Toury's tripartite model, norms are defined as "strategies of translation

which are repeatedly opted for, in preference to other available strategies, in a given culture or

textural system".

240. Obligatory Equivalents 必要对等[语]

奈达用此术语来描述译者从另一种语言翻译时必须采用的目标语特征。奈达认为，任何翻译的第一要求，“是译文必须符合接受语的必要形式特征”。

A term used by Nida to describe the features of TL which the translator must of necessity

employ when translating from another language. According to Nida, it is the first requirement of

any translation "that is conform to the obligatory formal features of the receptor language".

241. Oblique Translation 曲径

按照维纳与达尔贝勒纳的观点，用来指旨在处理下述情形的各类翻译步骤的一个术语：因源文本与目标文本之间存在结果与概念上的差异，不打乱文本的句法与词法顺序，就难以令人满意地把一些文体效果翻译出来。曲径翻译的四种类型即改编、对等、调适与置换。

According to Vinay & Darbelnet, a term used to refer to various types of translation

procedure designed to cope with situations where, because of structural or conceptual differences

between ST and TT, some stylistic or lexical order of the text. The four types of oblique

translation are ADAPTATION 2, EQUIVALENCE 2, MODULATION 1 and TRANSPOSITION.

242. Observational Receiver 观察型接受者

皮姆采用的术语，指那种虽然并非某一文本的特定对象，却能够理解文本信息的读者（或听众）。

A term used by Pym to describe a reader (or listener) who is able to understand the message

of a text, even though he or she is not specifically addressed in it.

243. Offer of Information 信息提供

见Information Offer [信息提供]。

244. Operative Model 操作模式

指巴斯盖特提出的一种翻译过程模式。所谓操作模式，是用来描述“译者为了从源文本过度到相应目标文本所做的各个阶段的工作”。操作模式将翻译过程分为七个阶段：调整（即感受文本）、分析、理解措词（即转移）、重组、检查与讨论。

A model of the translation process suggested by Bathgate. The operational model is designed

to describe "all phases of the work done by the translator to get from a source language text to the

corresponding target-language text". The operative model divides the process of translation into

seven phases: turning ("getting the feel of the text), ANALYSIS, understanding, terminology,

RESTRUCTURING, checking and discussion.

245. Operational Norms 操作规范

图里采用的术语，指用来“知道翻译过程中做出实际抉择”的翻译规范。操作规范有两类：一是影响文本“矩阵”规范；二是涉及文本结构和文本语言形成的规范（即文本规范）。

A term used by Toury to refer to those translational NORMS which "direct actual decisions

made during the translation process itself". There are two types of operating norms: those which

affect the matrix of the text, and those which involve the textual make-up and verbal formulation

of the text (TEXTUAL NORMS).

246. Operative Text 运作型文本（前称Appeal-focused Texts [感染型文本]）

赖斯采用的术语，指用来指导译者并有助于翻译批评过程的三种基本文本类型之一。在此类文本中，“内容与形式都受制于文本力图实现的语言外的目的”。这意味着译者的主要目的，是为了生成一个与原文具有对等说服力的目标文本。

A term used by Reiss to refer to one of three basic text-types intended both as a guide for

translator and to help in the process of translation criticism. In such text "both content and form

are subordinated to the extralinguistic effect which the text is designed to achieve". This means

that a translator's main aim should be to produce a TT which has an EQUIVALENT persuasive

force to that of the original.

247. Optional Equivalents 可换对等语

按照奈达的解释，指在将源文本转换成目标文本时，译者可以选用的语言特征。

According to Nida, the features of a language which a translator may choose to use when

rendering an ST in TL.

248. Organic Form 有机形式

见Content-derivative Form [派生内容的形式]。

249. Overlapping Translation 重合翻译（又名Partially-overlapping Translation

[部分重合翻译]）

赫维与希金斯用来描述语义近似对等类型的术语。通过增加源文本中没有的细节同时又省略源文本中本来有的另一个细节，这种语义近似对等把宽泛化翻译与具体化翻译的因素综

合到一个词和词组当中。

A term used by Hervey & Higgins to describe the type of semantic near-EQUIVALENCE

which combines elements of GENERALIZING TRANSLATION and PARTICULIZING

TRANSLATION in a single word or phrase by adding a detail not found in ST but at the same

time omitting another detail which is given there.

250. Overt Translation 显型翻译

豪斯提出的术语，用来指两种对立的翻译模式之一。所谓显型翻译，就是指译本“必须明显是翻译文本”。通常，生成一个显型译本是一个相对直接的在语言上重新编码的过程，而且往往无须做任何细微的文化调整。

A term introduced by House to refer to one of two contrasting modes of translation. An overt

translation "must overtly be a translation". Production of an overt translation is generally a matter

of relatively straightforward linguistic recoding, usually with no necessity to carry out any subtle

cultural realignment.

251. Overtranslation 超额翻译

1 （又写成Over-translation [超额翻译]）维纳与达尔贝勒纳采用的术语，描述在实际上只有一个翻译单位的地方却返现用了两个翻译单位的情形。

2 纽马克采用的术语，指翻译文本中两种常见的现象之一。纽马克认为，每一个翻译行为都会有一些原文意义的走失，如果这种意义的走失导致细节的增加（而非概括性词语的增加），这就称为“超额翻译”。

1 （or Over-translation） A term used by Vinay & Darbelnet to describe what occurs when

two UNITS OF TRANSLATION are perceived where there is in fact only one.

2 A term used by Newmark to refer to one of two phenomena frequently found in translated

texts. As is argued by Newmark, every act of translation involves some loss of ST meaning. If this

loss of meaning entails an increase in detail (rather than an increase in generalization) it is termed

overtranslation.

252. Paradigmatic Equivalence 范式对等

波波维奇将其定义为“在风格层而作为表达元素体系的范式表达轴上各个因素的对等”。

Defined by Popovič as "equivalence of the elements of a paradigmatic expression axis upon

the stylistic level as a system of expressive elements".

253. Parallel Corpora 平行语料[库] （又名Bilingual Corpora [双语语料（库）]）

按照贝克的解释，指“用A语写成的源语文本和用B语翻译的译文”组成的一种语料库。

According to Baker, a type of corpus "consists of original, source language-texts in language

A and their translated versions in language B".

254. Parallel Translation 平行翻译

卡塞格兰德所描述的一种翻译程序。平行翻译实际上是同时将源文本翻译成几种不同目标语的一种回译。

A procedure described by Casagrande. Parallel translation is in effect a type of

BACK0TRANSLATION in which an ST is translated simultaneously into several different TLs.

255. Paraphrase 释译

17世纪德莱顿描述的三种翻译方法之一。德莱顿把释译界定为“有一定自由度的翻译，在这类翻译中，原作者一直留在译者心中，不会消失，但作者的用词却不像他的意思那样得到尊重”。

One of three methods of translating described in the 17th century by Dryden. Dryden defines

paraphrase as "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as

never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense".

256. Paris School 巴黎学派

见Interpretive Theory of Translation [翻译释意理论]。

257. Partial Theories of Translation 局部翻译理论

按照霍姆斯的解释，指理论翻译研究的两大分支之一。局部翻译理论所关注的现象，只是翻译研究学科所涵盖的一小部分。局部翻译理论这一范畴可细分为六个次类别：关于范围的翻译理论、关于媒介的翻译理论、关于问题的翻译理论、关于级阶的翻译理论、关于文本类型的翻译理论、关于时域的翻译理论。

According to Holmes, one of the two branches of THEORETICAL TRANSLATION

STUDIES. Partial theories of translation are concerned with only a limited number of the

phenomena covered by the discipline of TRANSLATION STUDIES. The category of partial

theories of translation is further divided into six sub-types: AREA-RESTRICTED,

MEDIUM-RESTRICTED, PROBLEM-RESTRICTED, RANK-RESTRICTED,

TEXT-RESTRICTED and TIME-RESTRICTED THEORIES OF TRANSLATION.

258. Partial Translation 部分翻译

卡特福德采用的术语，指文本中某些部分（通常是词项）留下来“未被翻译”的一种翻译类型。

A term used by Catford to refer to a kind of translation in which parts of the text (usually

lexical items) are left "untranslated".

259. Partially-overlapping Translation 部分重合翻译

见Overlapping Translation [重合翻译]。

260. Participative Receiver 参与型接受者

按照皮姆的解释，指文本接受者的三种类型之一。参与型接受者是文本明确针对的读者（或听者）。

According to Pym, one of three types of text receiver. As such, a participative receiver is a

reader (or listener) to whom the text is explicitly addressed.

261. Particularizing Translation 具体化翻译（又名Particularization [具体化]）

赫维与希金斯将此界定为将源文本表达形式变为目标语“下定义”（即意义范围没有这么宽的词）的翻译。具体化翻译用于以下两种情况：“第一，当目标语没有合适的选词时；第二，当所增添的细节是源文本隐含的细节，并符合源文本的整体语境时”。

Defined by Hervey & Higgins as a translation which renders an ST expression by a TL

hyponym (or word with a more exclusive meaning). Particularizing translation is acceptable on

two conditions: "first, that the TL offers no suitable alternative; second, that the added detail is

implicit in the ST and fits in with the overall context of the ST".

262. Patronage 赞助

勒弗维尔在讨论影响文学系统及构成系统之各文本的诸种因素时所采用的术语。赞助被界定为“能促进或阻碍文学阅读、写作和重写的某种类似权利的东西（人、机构）”。

A term used by Lefevere in the context of a discussion of the factors which can be brought to

bear on a literary SYSTEM and the individual texts of which it is composed. Patronage is defined

as "something like the powers (persons, institutions) that can further or hinder the reading, writing,

and rewriting of literature".

263. Performance 运用

图里采用的术语。严格说来，该术语是用来指语际交际的实例；更具体地说，是指称为

“翻译”的这种语际交际类型的实例。

A term used by Toury. Strictly speaking, the term applies to instances of interlingual

communication, and more specifically, the type of interlingual communication which is known as

translation.

264. Phonemic Translation 音素翻译（又名Homophonic Translation [同音翻译]）

勒弗维尔提出的诗歌翻译的七种策略之一。在音素翻译中，译者首先考虑的是对源文本声音的忠信，所生成的目标文本，既要尽可能接近目标语表达形式，又要努力模仿源文本的“语音意象”。

One of seven strategies which Lefevere discusses with reference to English translations of

Catullus' poem sixty-four. In a phonemic translation the translator places fidelity to the sound of

ST above all other considerations, to produce a TT which attempts to mimic the "phonetic image"

of ST while being encoded in as close an approximation to TL as possible.

265. Phonological Translation 音位翻译

卡特福德采用的术语，指受限翻译的一种类型。在音位翻译中，“一个文本的源语音位被对应的目标语音位所代替”，而语法和词汇保持不变。

A term used by Catford to refer to a type of RESTRICTED TRANSALTION in which "the

SL phonology of a text is replaced by equivalent TL phonology", the grammar and lexis remaining

unchanged.

266. Pivot Language 中枢语言

当源文本由于某种原因不能直接译为目标语时，用此术语指作为介于源语和目标语之间的一种语言。

A term used to refer to a language which serves as an intermediate stage between ST and TL

when it is for some reason not possible to transfer ST directly into TL.

267. Poetry into Prose 译诗为文

勒弗维尔划分的诗歌翻译的七种策略之一。译诗为文的译者试图将源文本的某些诗歌特征再现于目标文本。

One of seven strategies of poetry translation catalogued by Lefevere. The translator attempts

to render in TT some of the poetic qualities of the original.

268. Polemical Translation 争辩式翻译

波波维奇界定的一种翻译。在争辩式翻译中，译者在翻译操作上有意识地“针对另一译者，代表与其不同或对抗性[翻译]理念的翻译操作”。此外，争辩式翻译还可以是针对源文本作者。

Defined by Popovič as a translation in which the translator's operations are intentionally

"directed against another translator's operations that are representative of a different or

antagonistic conception [of translation]". Alternatively, a polemical translation can also be aimed

at the ST author.

269. Polysystem Theory 多元系统理论

伊文—左哈提出的说明文学系统行文和演变的理论。多元系统指相互联系的各因素组成的一个多层次集合体，随着其中各个因素的相互作用，该集合体也会发生改变和变异。

A theory proposed by Even-Zohar to account for the behaviour and evolution of literary

SYSTEMS. The term polysystem denotes a stratified conglomerate of interconnected elements,

which changes and mutates as these elements interact with each other.

270. Post-editing 译后编辑

讨论机器翻译时使用的术语，塞杰把它界定为“对机器翻译系统的产品进行改编和修订，删除那些妨碍理解的错误，或使产品读起来像自然语言文本”。

A term used in the context of MACHINE TRANSLATION and defined by Sager as "the

adaptation and revision of output of a machine translation system either to eliminate errors which

impede comprehension or to make the output read like a natural language text".

271. Pragmatic Translation 语用翻译

1 （又名Pragmatic Approach [语用途径]）此术语用来指不仅关注指称意义，还关注“话语在交际情境中的使用方式以及人们在语境中的解读方式”的翻译。

2 卡塞格兰德对翻译的四种分类之一。在这种翻译中，主要目的是“尽可能有效地、准确地翻译信息”，关注的重点是“信息的内容本身，而非信息的美学形式、语法形式或文化语境”。

1 (or Pragmatic Approach) A term used to refer to transaltion which pays attention not only to

denotative meaning but also to "the way utterances are used in communicative situations and the

way we interpret them in context".

2 One of Casagrande's four classifications of translation in which the chief purpose is to

"translate a message as efficiently and as accurately as possible", with the emphasis on "the

content of the message as such rather than on its aesthetic form, grammatical form or the cultural

context".

272. Pre-editing 译前编辑

此术语用来表示为机器翻译系统准备源文本的过程。即对所译文本的语法和词汇进行简化、清晰化和语义消歧，以确保机器翻译出的产品有过得去的质量。

A term used to refer to the process of preparing an ST for translation by a MACHINE

TRANSALTION system. That is to simplify, clarify and disambiguate the grammar and

vocabulary of the text to be translated, in order to ensure that the output is of a reasonable quality.

273. Precision, Degree of 精确度

见Degree of Differentiation [区分度]。

274. Preliminary Norms 预先规范

按照图里的解释，指影响翻译过程的不同类型的规范之一。预先规范被界定为在两个不同但明显相关的方面发生作用的规范。

According to Toury, one of a number of different types of NORM which influence the

translation process. Preliminary norms are defined as operating in two distinct clearly related

areas.

275. Prescriptive Translation Studies 规定翻译研究；规定翻译学

图里用来表示带有规范观点的翻译途径。换言之，这些翻译途径强加一些标准，规定特定文化中翻译应当如何操作。

A term used by Toury to refer to approaches to translation which are normative in outlook, or

in other words which impose criteria stipulating the way translation should be performed in a

particular culture.

276. Primäre Üersetzung

见Primary Translation [首级翻译]。

277. Primary Translation 首级翻译

按照迪勒与康纳留斯的解释，指翻译的两种方法之一。如果翻译的目的是“使源语发出者和目标语接受者之间产生交际活动”，那么这种翻就被看作是首级翻译。

According to Diller & Kornelius, one of two ways of translating. A TT is considered to be a

primary translation if the aim is "to produce a communication between an SL sender and a TL

receiver".

278. Problem-restricted Theories of Translation 关于问题的翻译理论

霍姆斯采用的术语，指六种局部翻译理论之一。关于问题的翻译理论处理一些与翻译具体相关的问题，例如翻译对等的性质、如何翻译隐喻与专有名词等问题。

A term used by Holmes to refer to one of six PARTIAL THEORIES OF TRANSLATION.

Problem-restricted theories of translation deal with specific translation-related problems, such as

for example that concerning the nature of transaltion EQUIVALENCE, or the translation of

metaphors or proper names.

279. Process-oriented Translation Studies 过程取向翻译研究；过程取向翻译学

（又名Process-oriented Descriptive Translation Studies [过程取向描写翻译研究；过程取向描写翻译学]）

按照霍姆斯的解释，指三种描写翻译研究类型之一。过程取向翻译研究主要考察翻译活动中的思维过程。

According to Holmes, one of three varieties of DESCRIPTIVE TRANSALTION STUDIES.

Process-oriented Translation Studies is concerned with an examination of the mental processes

involved in the act of translation.

280. Product-oriented Translation Studies 成品取向翻译研究；成品取向翻译学

（又名Product-oriented Descriptive Translation Studies [成品取向描写翻译研究；成品取向描写翻译学]）

按照霍姆斯的解释，指三种描写翻译研究中的一种。这一方法通常从描写现存译文着手，进而对同一文本在一个或多个目标语中的各种译文进行比较分析。

One of three types of DESCRIPTIVE TRANSALTION STUDIES, according to Holmes.

This approach generally starts from the description of existing translations, and typically

progresses to a comparative analysis of various translations of the same text into one or more TLs.

281. Professional Norms 专业规范

切斯特曼将其定义为两种翻译规范之一。切特斯曼认为，专业规范支配着“翻译过程中普遍接受的翻译方法与策略”，这样的专业规范旨在反映特定文化的专业译员生成译文的方式。

Defined by Chesterman as one of two types of translational NORM. According to

Chesterman, professional norms govern "the accepted methods and strategies of the translation

process"; as such they are intended to reflect the way professional translators in a given culture

produce translations.

282. Prose Translation 散文翻译

见Inverse Translation [逆向翻译]。

283. Prospective Science of Translation 前瞻式翻译科学

见Prospective Translation [前瞻式翻译] 和Science of Translation [翻译科学]。

284. Prospective Translation 前瞻式翻译

波斯特盖特用来描写那种“以读者为核心”的翻译术语。前瞻式翻译是一个以目标语为取向的翻译过程，在这个翻译过程中，译者关心的主要是如何用对目标语读者合适的语言来表达源文本的意义。

A term used by Postgate to describe translation "which primarily regards the Reader".

Prospective translation is thus a TL-oriented translation procedure in which the translator's main

concern is to express the ST meaning in terms appropriate to the TL audience.

285. Protest 抗议

赖斯与弗米尔在目的论的语境中使用的术语。如果接受者的反馈以抗议的形式出现，换言之，如果交流未能如预想的那样被接受，那么这一交际就被认为是不成功的；信息的内容或者信息发出者的意图都可能导致这种抗议的产生。

A term used by Reiss & Vermeer in the context of SKOPOS THEORY. If the recipient's

feedback takes the form of a protest, or in other words if the communication is not received as it

was intended, the communication is considered not to have been successful; such a protest can

occur because of either the content of the message or the intention of the producer.

286. Prototext 原型文本

在波波维奇的元交际理论中，该术语被定义为“作为互文连续体的目标物”的文本。换言之，任何作为；另一个文本（或元文本）出发点的文本都是原型文本。

Defined within Popovič theory of metacommunication as a text "which serves as an ohject of

inter-textual continuity". In other words, a prototext is any text which provides the starting-point

for the creation of a further text (or METATEXT).

287. Pseudotranslation 伪翻译

1 此术语用来指“那些并没有真正源文、而在目标文化中却被视为翻译的目标语文本”。

2 拉多采用的术语，指目标文本过度偏离源文本以致不能把它当成翻译。

1 A term used to refer to "TL texts which are regarded in the target culture as translations

though no genuine STs exist for them".

2 A term used by Radó to refer to a TT which deviates to greatly from its ST to be considered

a translation.

288. Public Service Interpreting 公共服务传译

见Community Interpreting [社传译]。

289. Pure Language 纯语言（又名Logos [逻各斯]、True Language [本真语言]）

沃尔特·本雅明在其论述语言与翻译性质的著述中使用的术语。纯语言指人类用来命名天地万物的天堂语言。

A term used by Walter Benjamin in his writings on the nature of language and translation.

The pure language refers to the language of Paradise which Man used in order to name everything

in Creation.

290. Pure Translation Studies 纯翻译研究；纯翻译学

按照霍姆斯的解释，指翻译研究的一个非应用分支。在此意义上，纯研究研究本身又分为描写与理论两个部分。

According to Holmes, the non-applied subdivision of TRANSLATION STUDIES. As such,

Pure Translation Studies is itself split into a descriptive and a theoretical wing.

291. Radical Translation 原始翻译

奎因采用的术语，指“对以前从未接触过的民族语言的翻译”。原始翻译的目的是为了突出翻译中的不确定性。

A term used by Quine to denote the "translation of the language of a hitherto untouched

people". The purpose of radical translation is to highlight the notion of indeterminacy in

translation.

292. Rank-bound Translation 级阶受限翻译

卡特福德将其描述为完全翻译的一个类别。级阶受限翻译是一种“故意将目标对等语的选择局限于一个级阶（或少数几个低级阶）”的担忧。

Defined by Catford as a type of TOTAL TRANSLATION. A rank-bound translation is one in

which "the selection of TL equivalents is deliberately confined to one rank (or a few ranks, low in

the rank scale)".

293. Rank-restricted Theories of Translation 关于级阶的翻译理论

指霍姆斯区分的六种局部翻译理论之一。关于级阶的翻译理论的定义是，它只关注在小于整个语篇的语言级阶上所做翻译的特征。

One of six types of PARTIAL THEORY OF TRANSLATION identified by Holmes. A

rank-restricted theory of translation is defined as one which is only concerned with the features of

translation at linguistic ranks lower than entire texts.

294. Reader-oriented Machine Translation 读者取向机器翻译

塞杰用此术语来指仅为了向目标语读者传达源文内容，而通过机器翻译快速生成目标语文本的翻译方式。

A term used by Sager to refer to the speedy production of a TL version of a text by means of

MACHINE TRANSLATION in order simply to inform the TL reader of the content of ST.

295. Realia 独有特征

夫拉科夫与弗罗林将其定义为具有地方特与历史彩的文本因素。独有特征有如下四类：（1）与地理和民族特征有关的；（2）与民俗和深化有关的；（3）与日常事物有关的；（4）与社会历史有关的。

Defined by Vlakhov & Florin as text elements which provide local and historical colour.

There are four categories of realia: a) geographical and ethnographical; b) folkloric and

mythological; c) everyday items; d) social-historical.

296. Receptor Language 接受语

奈达与泰伯将其定义为“将信息从原文或源发语译入的那种语言”。

Defined by Nida & Taber as "the language into which a message is translated from the

original or source language".

297. Reconstructions, Translation with 重构式翻译

按照古阿德克的解释，指满足在某一专业领域的各种不同翻译需求的七种翻译之一。在重构式翻译中，源语被作为整体来解释，而不考虑其形式。此类翻译的目的是，以尽可能简单的形式传达原文内容，因此所有信息都可能以立即为目标语读者所理解。

According to Gouadec, one of seven types of translation which serve to meet the various

translation needs which arises in a professional environment. In translation with reconstructions

ST is translated in its entirety without regard to its form. The aim of such a translation is to

communicate the content of ST in the simplest way possible; all the information is thus

immediately accessible to the TL reader.

298. Redundancy 冗余

奈达将其描述为翻译过程中应该保留的所有自然语言都具备的一种特征，指在文本中加入不必要的或重复的信息。

Described by Nida as a feature of all natural languages which should be preserved through

the translation process, referring to the inclusion of unnecessary or repeated information within a

text.

299. Refraction 折射

勒弗维尔用来指一系列文学过程的普通术语，可以说翻译即属于这样的过程。勒弗维尔将折射界定为“对文学作品的改编，以适应不同读者，目的在于影响目标读者阅读这个作品的方式”。

A general term used by Lefevere to refer to the range of literary processes to which

translation can be said to belong. Lefevere defines refraction as "the adaptation of a work of

literature to a different audience, with the intention of influencing the way in which that audience

reads the work".

300. Regulative Translational Conventions 规约性翻译常规

诺德用来指两种翻译常规之一的术语。规约性翻译常规是指“处理语篇层面以下翻译问题普遍接受的形式”。

A term used by Nord to denote one of two types of translational CONVENTION. The

concept of regulative translational conventions refers to "the generally accepted forms of handling

certain translation problems below the text rank".

301. Relay Interpreting 转接传译

指通过第三语言即中介语言在两种（使用范围通常较窄的）语言之间进行传译活动的术语。

A term used to refer to the practice of interpreting between two (usually less widely spoken)

language via a third, mediating language.

302. Repertoreme 知识库要素

图里将其界定为“不论级阶与范围大小的、构成某种常规化知识库的...任意符号”。知识库这一术语被理解为“支配任何特定产品制造与使用的规则与材料的总和”。

Defined by Toury as "any sign, irrespective of rank and scope, which forms apart of ...an

institutionalized repertoire". The term repertoire is understood as referring to "the aggregate of

rules and materials which govern both the making and use of any given product".

303. Rephrasing 变换措词

赫维与希金斯采用的术语，指“在不增删源文本明确传达的细节的情况下，特定源文本的信息内容被形式上截然不同的目标文本完全转换的现象”。

A term used by Hervey & Higgins to refer to "the exact rendering of the message content of a

given ST in a TT that is radically different in form, but neither adds nor omits details explicitly

conveyed in the ST".

304. Resistancy 阻抗（又名Resistance）

韦努迪采用的术语，指保留文本异国情调的一种文学翻译策略。

A term used by Venuti to refer to the strategy of translating a literary text so that it retains

something of its foreignness.

305. Restricted Translation 受限翻译

卡特福德采用的术语，指一种与完全翻译相对的翻译模式。受限翻译被界定为“仅仅在一个层面上用对等的目标语文本材料取代源文本材料的翻译”。

A term used by Carford to refer to a mode of translation which contrasts with TOTAL

TRANSLATION. Restricted translation is defined as the "replacement of SL textual material by

equivalent TL textual material, not only one level".

306. Restructuring 重组（又名Forward-transformation [前向转换]）

Transformation [转换]，或按照奈达与泰伯的解释，指翻译过程的第三阶段，即最后阶段。重组阶段就是对被转换的材料进行加工处理，其目的是为了将转换过程的结果转变成一种“适合接受语与预期接受者的文体形式”。

According to Nida & Taber, the third and final stage in the translation process. The

restructuring stage processes the transferred material; its purpose is to transform the results of the

transfer process into a "stylistic form appropriate to the receptor language and to the intended

receptors".

307. Retranslation 转译

见Indirect Translation [间接翻译]。

308. Retrospective Science of Translation 后瞻式翻译科学

见Retrospective Translation [后瞻式翻译]、science of Translation [翻译科学]。

309. Retrospective Translation 后瞻式翻译

波斯特盖特采用的术语，指“主要考虑原作者”的翻译。威尔斯用“后瞻式翻译科学”这个术语来指一种对错误分析与翻译批评等现象的研究，这种研究属于把翻译看做产品而不是过程的应用翻译研究的一个分支。

A term introduced by Postgate to describe translation "which primarily regards the Author".

Wilss uses the term retrospective science of translation to denote the study of such phenomena as

error analysis and translation criticism, which belongs to the subdivision of APPLIED

TRANSLATION STUDIES associated with translation as a product rather than a process.

310. Revoicing 换声

见Dubbing [配音]。

311. Rewording 换词

见Intralingual Translation [语内翻译]。

312. Rewriting 重写

勒弗维尔采用的术语，指包括翻译在内的一系列过程，可以说，这些过程以某种方式对源文本进行重新解释、改编或操纵。重写被界定为“所有有助于构建作者或文学作品‘形象’的行为”。

A term introduced by Lefevere to refer to a range of processes, including translation, which

can be said to reinterpret, alter or manipulate an original text in some way. Rewriting is defined as

"anything that contributes to constructing the 'image' of a writer and/or a work of literature".

313. Rhymed Translation 韵体翻译

勒弗维尔用以描述七种是个翻译策略之一的术语。韵体翻译的音步为自我强加的音步而非复制源文本的音步。此处的源文本由无韵体诗文写成。

One of seven strategies for translating poetry described by Levefere. The metre of rhymed

translation is self-imposed rather than being copied form ST, which in this case was composed in

non-rhyming verse.

314. Science of Translation 翻译科学

多个意义重叠的术语之一，用来指对翻译现象进行系统研究的学科。

One of several overlapping terms used to denote the discipline concerned with the systematic

study of translation phenomena.

315. Scopos Theory 目的论

见Skopos Theory [目的论]。

316. Secondary Translation 二级翻译

迪勒与康纳留斯用来指两种翻译模式之一的术语。所谓的“二级翻译”是指目的在于“将源语发送者与源语接受者之间的交流告知目标语接受者”的翻译。

A term used by Diller & Kornelius to refer to one of two modes of translation. A secondary

translation is defined as a translation which has the purpose of "informing a TL receiver about a

communication between an SL sender and an SL receiver".

317. Second-hand Translation 二手翻译

见Indirect Translation 1 [间接翻译]。

318. Sekundäre Übersetzung

见Secondary Translation [二级翻译]。

319. Selective Translation 选译

古阿德克提出的用以应付专业翻译环境下不同翻译要求的七种翻译类别之一。在选译中，只有与源文本某个特殊方面有关的细节得到翻译，而所有不相关的信息都被排除不译。

One of seven types of translation proposed by Gouadec to fulfil the various translation needs

which can occur in a professional environment. In selective translation only details relating to one

specific aspect of ST are translated, thus eliminating all irrelevant information.

320. Self Translation 自译

见Autotranslation [自译]。

321. Semantic Disambiguation 语义消歧

用来描述从外语到本族语的翻译过程中一个关键阶段的术语。译者（或读者）的任务就是在能获得的语境线索基础上确定各个词的准确意义。

A term used to describe a vital stage in the process of translating from a foreign language.

The task of the translator (or reader) is to determine the precise meanings of individual words on

the basis of the contextual clues which are available.

322. Semantic Translation 语义翻译

按照纽马克的解释，指两种翻译模式之一。在这种翻译中，“译者只在目标语句法和语义的限制内，试图再现作者的准确语境意义”。

According to Newmark, one of two modes of translation, in which "the translator attempts,

within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual

meaning of the author".

323. Semantic Voids 语义空缺

见Void [空缺]。

324. Sense, Theory of 意义理论

见Interpretive Theory of Translation [翻译释意理论]。

325. Sense-for-sense Translation 意对意翻译

用来描述强调移译文本意义或“精神”比准确再现原文措词更重要的翻译类型的一般术语。这种方法的目的，是译出符合目标语言及文化规范的译文，使译文读起来没有“外国味”，从而满足目标语读者的需要。

A general term used to describe the type of translation which emphasizes transfer of the

meaning or "sprint" of an ST over accurate reproduction of the original wording. The purpose of

such a policy is to accommodate the needs of the TL reader by producing a text which conforms to

the linguistic and textual norms of the target language and culture and which does not therefore

sound "foreign".

326. Serial Translation 序列翻译

卡塞格兰德把它界定为回译的一种特殊类型。在序列翻译中，“语码A中的信息被连续译入语码B、C、D等等，如有需要，再回译到语码A”。

Defined by Casagrande as a special type of BACK-TRANSLATION in which "a message in

code A is translated successively into codes B, C, D, etc. and if desired, back into code A".

327. Service Translation 服务型翻译

纽马克采用的术语，亦称为逆向翻译。服务型翻译即从母语到外语的翻译。

A term used by Newmark to denote what is also known as INVERSE TRANSLATION.

Service translation is the practice of translating our of one's native language.

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