Phonetics（Exercise 3）
1. What are the two major media of
communication? Of the two, which one is
primary and why?
The two major media of communication are
speech and writing. (Cf. the answer to the question
4 in exercise 2.)
2. What are the three branches of phonetics? How
do they contribute to the study of speech sounds?
The three branches of phonetics are:
articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and
auditory phonetics. They study speech sounds from
different perspectives. Articulatory phonetics
studies the production of speech sounds, acoustic
phonetics studies the physical properties of the
sounds produced in speech and auditory phonetics
studies the perception of speech sounds.
3. Draw a picture for the speech organs of human
beings. (cf. the figure on P. 33)
4. Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human
being contained? See the figure on P. 33.
5. What is voicing and how is it caused?
Voicing is producing a sound (usually a vowel
or voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.
6. What criteria are used to classify English
vowels?
The criteria used to classify English vowels
are:
The height of the tongue raising: high, mid,
and low
The position of the highest part of the tongue:
front, central, and back
The degree of lip rounding: rounded,
un-rounded
The degree of tenseness/the length of sound:
tense (long) or lax (short)
The change of sound quality:
pure(monophthong), gliding(diphthong)
Front Central Back
tenlatenlatenlase x se x se x
High/close
¡: ¡ u: u
Mid e ə: ə ɔ:
1 / 8
Low/open
æ ʌ ɑ: ɔ
7. What is the function of the nasal cavity? How
does it perform the function?
Nasal cavity is a resonating cavity which
amplifies and further modifies sounds produced by
the movement of the vocal cords. The soft palate
may be lowered, as in the normal position for
breathing, so that the air can go through the nasal
cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time
blocked, a nasal sound is produced.
8. Describe the various parts in the oral cavity
which are involved in the production of speech
sounds? (See P.35)
9. Explain with examples how broad transcription
and narrow transcription differ?
Transcription refers to the method of writing
down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent
way. It serves as an aid to the description of speech
sounds.
There are two types of transcription: broad
and narrow transcription.
Broad transcription refers to the transcription
to indicate those sounds, which are capable of
distinguishing one word from another in a given
language. Two slashes are used, e.g. pet /pet/, bed
/bed/.
Narrow transcription is to symbolize all the
possible speech sounds, including the minute
shades, such as the transcription of /l/ in the
following words:
Let [let], tell [teł]; peak [p k], speak [sp k]
10. How are the English consonants and vowels
classified?
There are basically two kinds of sounds,
consonants and vowels.
Consonants are sounds in the production of
which there is obstruction of the air-stream at some
point of the vocal tract. Vowels are sounds in the
production of which no vocal organs come close
together and the air-stream passes through the
vocal tract without obstruction. The main
difference between them is that the air flows freely
in vowels, while all consonants involve some sort
of interference of the air-stream in the mouth.
11. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the
（1） voiced palatal affricate: /ʤ /
（2）
（3）
（4）
（5）
voiceless labiodental fricative: /f/
voiced alveolar stop: /d/
front close short: /i/
back semi-open long: /ɔ:/
following sound descriptions:
（6） voiceless bilabial stop: /p/
（7） front mid vowel: /e/
（8） lateral liquid: /l/
（9） lax high back vowel: /u/
（10） voiced bilabial oral stop: /b/
（11） mid central lax vowel: / ə /
（12） low front vowel: / æ /
（13） palatal glide: /j/
（14） voiced interdental fricative: /ð /
（15） voiced affricate: / ʤ /
（16） velar nasal consonant: /η/
（17） low back vowel: / a: /
（18） high back tense vowel: /u:/
（19） mid back lax vowel: / ɔ /
（20）voiceless interdental fricative: /θ/2 / 8
5. voiced bilabial
12. Give the phonetic features of each of the
6. voiced velar
following sounds:
7. back tense vowels
［d］voiced, alveolar, stop; ［l］8. back round vowels
9. front high vowels
voiced, alveolar, lateral;
10. sibilants
［t∫］voiceless, post-alveolar, affricate; ［w］VI.
voiced, bilabial, glide;
1. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.
［u］back, high, lax, rounded; ［æ］2. Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal
cords when sounds are produced.
front, low, lax, unrounded;
3. The unite of representation used to
［b］voiced, bilabial, stop; ［v］transcribe the speech sounds is called
voiced, labio-dental, fricative;
segment.
4. Classes of sounds that share a feature or
［a:］back, low, tense, unrounded;
features are called natural classes.
［m］voiced, bilabial, nasal;
VII. Manners of articulation refer to how the
［r］voiced, alveolar, liquid;
stream is modified, whether it is air
［i:］front, high, tense, unrounded.
completely blocked or partially
obstructed. According to manners of
13. Draw a tongue chart for the basic
articulation, consonants are classified
English vowels.
into stops, nasals, fricatives, affricates,
Front Central
liquids, and gildesBack
High
Mid-High
Mid-low
Low
第二章习题答案
I. 1—5 T F T T F
II. 1—5 b d a c a
III. 1. [ b ] bilabial voiced stop
2. [ n ] alveolar nasal stop
3. [ w ] bilabial glide
4. [ v ] voiced labiodental fricative
5. [ t ] voiceless alveolar stop
6. [ i:] high front tense vowel
7. [ð ] voiceless interdental
8. [u:] high back tense vowel
9. [æ ] low front vowel
10 [ə:] central tense vowel
IV. 1. [b p m] 2. [d n] 3. [ŋ] 4. [m] 5. [
ə: ə]
6. [s z] 7. [u: u] 8. [] 9. [j] 10
[]
V. 1. voiceless alveolar
2. voiced stop
3. voiced fricatives
4. palatals
3 / 8
Phonology（Exercise 4）
1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?
Phonetics and phonology both study the same aspect of language---- speech sounds, there is a
fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects. Without the knowledge of speech sounds
provided by phonetic studies, any study of the sound system of a particular language would have
been almost impossible.
However, the two subjects approach speech sounds from different points of view.
A) Phonetics provides methods for the description, transcription of sounds for all languages;
phonology studies the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, phonetics is general,
descriptive, and classificatory; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages:
how they are produced, how they differ from each other, etc. phonological study is particular and
functional. It is particular to one language and the conclusion we reach about the phonology of one
language should not be generalized into the study of another language. Phonology deals with how
human being use speech sounds to express meaning.
B) The basis unit of phonetic study is phone, while that of phonological study is phoneme.
C) A phonetic study is a static one, since it tells us how a sound of a language is made,
transmitted and received, whereas a phonological study is a dynamic one, telling how sounds are
used to convey meaning.
2. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the
phoneme?
Phone refers to the speech sound we use when speaking a language. Phoneme is the smallest
sound unit that can distinguish meaning. However, phoneme is an abstract unit, i.e. it is not a
sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actually speech, a phoneme is realized
phonetically as a certain phone.
A phoneme can be realized by one or more than one phone. The different phones which
represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
Allophones are actualizations of a phoneme in a particular language that never affect the meaning.
3. What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal
set in a language?
Minimal pair refers to two expressions (words or morphemes) of a language with different
meanings that are distinguished by only one phoneme, e.g. {pig: big}; {tip: dip}; {ship, sheep}.
Minimal set refers to more than two expressions of a language with different meanings that
are distinguished by only one phoneme, such as {said: says: set: sell}; {pat: bat: mat}.
Contrasting minimal pairs is a basic procedure in establishing the phonemic inventory of a
language.
4. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.
The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules.
1) Sequential rules
Speech is a dynamic process and when human beings talk, they do not utter each and sound
separately, but deliver a continuous flow of sounds. There are rules that govern the combination of
sounds in a particular language, which are called sequential rules. For instance, in English, if three
consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the
following three rules:
a) the first phoneme must be /s/;
4 / 8
b) the second must be /p/, /t/ or /k/;
c) the third must be /l/, /r/ or /w/
Examples: spring, string, sequential, splendid
2) Assimilation rules
The assimilation rules assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential
sound, thus making the two sounds more similar. Assimilation is caused by articulatory or
physiological processes.
give boats [giv buts] give peace [gif pi:s]
The sound /v/ ( voiced, labiodental, fricative) is influenced by following sound /p/ (voiceless,
bilabial, stop).
3) Deletion rules
The rule means that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g.
the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, paradigm, there is no /g/ sound although it is
represented in spelling by the letter. But in their corresponding noun forms signature, designation,
and paradigmatic, the /g/ represented is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a /g/ when it
occurs before a final nasal consonant.
5. State the functions of stress in a language with examples.
Stress is the emphasis (shown by more forceful, louder, and higher-pitched voice) given to
some syllables (usually no more than one in each word). The result is that the stressed syllables
sound louder than unstressed ones.
According to the context, i.e. whether stress is considered in the context of the word in
isolation or in the context of connected speech, stress can be divided into two types: word stress
and sentence stress.
1) Word stress
There are some factors which determine the placement of stress in such language.
a) The syntactic class of a word provides some clue to the position of stress.
Combine, convict, insult, abstract, greenhouse
b) The morphological make-up of a word affects its stress pattern. For example, words ending
with the following endings:
-ity, -ion, -ian, -ic, -ify, -ible, -igible, -ish, (stress on the preceding syllable): exemplify,
terrible, foolish, Verbs of three or more syllables ending in –ate, throw the stress back two
syllables: liberate, hibernate; whereas verbs of two syllables ending in –ate, place the stress on ate:
narrate.
2) Sentence stress
Sentence stress plays various roles in conveying meaning.
a) Sentence stress depends on the relative importance of the word. The more important a
word is, the stronger its stress is.
b) Rhythmic considerations influence the placement of stress (such as in poetry). Stressed
syllables tend to occur at regular intervals of time, the stress pattern is affected by the rhythm. e.g.
She is fifteen years old. She is only fifteen.
c) The syntactic structure of a sentence influences its stress pattern, such as parenthetical
phrases are often not stressed.
6. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English
function in conveying meaning?
5 / 8
Supra-segmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than
phoneme, such as the syllable, word, phrase, clause, or sentence. The principal features are stress,
pitch (tone), and intonation.
Meaning conveyed by these features:
1) Stress (see the answer to the question 6)
2) pitch
Different rates of variation are, in acoustic term, different frequencies, and in auditory terms,
are different pitches (degree of highness and lowness of sound or quality of sound). Pitch
variations are called tones, and languages using tones are tone languages.
Tone language is a language that distinguishes meanings among words of similar form by
variations in pitch and tone. The best-known example is the Chinese dialects of Mandarin and
Cantonese, such as the form “ma” has five tones with different meanings: 吗,妈,嘛,马,骂.
3) Intonation
Intonation is the use of changing pitch to convey syntactic information, i.e. the rise or fall of
the pitch in speaking, which could affect the meaning of what is said.
The grammatical functions of intonation:
a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.
b) It may indicate connotative meanings.
I cannot eat anything. (I can eat nothing. I can only eat some particular ones)
c) It may impose different structure on the sentence by dividing the sentence into different
intonation units.
He didn’t come because of Mary. Those who sold quickly made a profit.
d) It may make part of a sentence prominent by placing the nucleus on the part concerned.
e) It has attitudinal function, expressing the speaker’s feelings or attitudes.
7. A phonetic symbol is actually a “cover term” for a composite of distinct phonetic properties or
features. Define each of the symbols below by marking a “+” or a “---” for each given feature: a
“+”, if the property is present, a “---” , if it is absent:
Sound segments:
Phonetic features
High
Low
Back
Tense
Round
Sound segments
Phonetic
features
Stop
Nasal
Voiced
Labial
Alveolar
Velar
f
-
-
-
+
-
-
n
-
+
+
-
+
-
g
+
-
+
-
-
+
6 / 8
-
-
-
-
-
-
z
-
-
+
-
+
-
t
+
-
-
-
+
-
l
-
-
+
-
+
-
u
+
-
+
-
+
e
-
-
-
-
-
a:
-
+
+
+
-
i
+
-
-
-
-
æ
-
+
-
-
-
u:
+
-
+
+
+
i:
-
-
-
+
-
Liquid
Fricative
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
Supplementary material: the phonetic features of English diphthongs
According to the direction of gliding, diphthongs can be central or closing. According to the
position of the more prominent element in the diphthong, we have divided diphthong into falling
diphthongs (if the prominent element comes first) and rising diphthongs (if the less prominent
comes first). Diphthongs can be wide (if the glide implies a more radical movement of the speech
organs) and narrow (if the two vocalic elements occupy neighbouring positions on the vowel
chart). Diphthongs can be opening (if the degree of aperture increases with the glide) or closing (if
the less prominent vowel is closer than the first).
e
Centring
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
Falling
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Narrow
+
+
+
-
-
+
+
-
Opening
+
-
+
-
-
-
-
-
8. Distinguish and transcribe the following sounds in groups.
（1）【p】in pit , tip and spit
（2）【l】in lesson and people
（3）【n】in ten and tenth
（4）【k】in key and scheme
（5）【t】in team and steam
9. Fill in the proper word according to the explanations.
（1）the frequency of vibration in the musical sound of the voice.（pitch）.
（2）a special emphasis on a sound or a sound group.（stress）.
（3）the length of silence between parts of utterance.（pause）.
（4）the smallest structured sound unit made up of a rule-governed sequence of phonemes.（syllable）.
（5）the phonetic process in which two phonemes ,adjacent to each other, become identical.（assimilation）.
第三章习题答案
I. 1-5 T F F T T
II. 1-5 b b c c d 6-10 c b d b d
III.
1. Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.
2. Two words that differ by only one sound in the same position are called minimal pairs.
3. If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change
of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
4. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called
7 / 8
suprasegmental features. The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation
and tone.
IV.
1. Devoice a voiced consonant when it occurs after a voiceless consonant.
2. A voiceless consonant becomes voiced when it occurs between two vowels.
3. Voiceless stops are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable
4. vowels become nasalized when they occur before nasals.
V.
“hotdog” is a compound word and the stress is on the “hot”. A hotdog is a long cooked sausage.
“hot dog” is a noun phrase and the stress is on “dog”. A hot dog refers to a dog that is hot.
VI Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. Phonology is the study of sound systems and
patterns. Phonetics and phonology are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but
they two differ in perspectives. Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how
speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them. In
phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are overlooked.
Phonology focuses on the following three fundamental question: What sounds make up the
list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds make up
the list of ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a
particular language?
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