Linguistics要点

Linguistics要点

“Predication analysis” is a new approach for sentential

meaning analysis. “Predication” is usually considered an

important common category shared by propositions, questions,

commands, etc. Predication is to break down the sentence into

their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and

predicate (relation element). The “predicate” is the major or

pivotal element governing the argument. We may now

distinguish a “two-place predicate” (which governs two

arguments, e.g., subject and object), a “one-place predicate”

(which governs one argument, i.e., subject) and a “no-place

predicate” that has simply no argument (no real subject or

object).

述谓结构分析：所谓述谓是指句子的抽象的语义内容，绝大多数的句子内容都是由一个人或物以及对这个人或物的表述构成的。从语义结构角度看，这两部分分别称为论元（argument）和谓语（predicate）。所谓述谓结构分析是指通过对这两部分的分析以达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。“述谓”和“谓语化”是所有的健全语句（如命题、即肯定句、否定句、疑问句和祈使句等）的共同特征。因此，语义学家就用“述谓”这一范畴并把它分解成变元和谓语，前者是“逻辑参加者”，后者是“关系因素”，负责把变元联系起来。

Linguistics：

1. What is linguistics?

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not

just one language of any one society, but the language of all

human beings. Linguists observe language facts and investigate

how language is constructed. Linguistics studies the general

validity and principles whereupon all human languages.

2. Descriptive: describe and analyze linguistic facts or

language people actually use (modern linguistic)

Prescriptive: lay down rules for “correct and standard”

linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)

3. Speech and writing: two major media. Speech is the

primary medium of language. Writing is later developed.

Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of

language as primary, not the written?

First, the spoken form (speech) is prior to the written form

and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of

language.

Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in

terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a

wider range of purposes

Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we

acquire our mother tongue.

4. Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of

his language.

Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in

linguistic communication.

Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of

view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each

individual.

5. Traditional grammar: prescriptive, written, Latin-based

framework.

Modern linguistics: descriptive, spoken, not necessarily

Latin-based framework.

Linguistics is descriptive while the traditional grammar is

prescriptive; modern linguistics regards the spoken language as

primary, traditional grammar on the other hand tended to over-emphasize the importance of written word, because of its

permanence; modern linguistics does not force language into a

Latin-based framework.

How is modern linguistics different from traditional

grammar?

Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high

"(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules

and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics

is descriptive; it collects authentic and mainly spoken language

data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective

and scientific way.

6. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for

human communication.

7. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of

language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the

world’s languages.

Articulatory

phonetics

7+phonology：

phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic

8. Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of

words and the rules by which words are formed.

9. Open class words: content words of a language to which

we can regularly add new words

Closed class words: grammatical or functional words, such as

conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns

10. Morpheme -- the minimal unit of meaning

Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of

one morpheme or more morphemes

11. Auxiliary - head movement

Inversion: Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.

Inversion (revised): Move Infl to C

12. Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with

the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the

units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the

meaning of the sentence.

Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form

of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations;

it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.

13. Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for

things.

14. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link

between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between

language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of

meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in

the mind.

Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle

15. Contextualism前后关系: meaning should be studied in

terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with

language behavior.

16. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the

linguistic form.

Reference, what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical

world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic

element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

(P) Preposition: about, over, on (PP) Prepositon Phrase:

mainly about

(Det): the, a, this, those (Deg): quite, very, more

(Qual): often, always, almost (Aux): must, should, can

(Con): and, but, so

17. Homonymy同义: the phenomenon that words having

different meanings have the same form, different words are

identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

Homophones同音: identical in sound

Homographs同行异义: identical in spelling

Complete homonyms: in both

18. Hyponymy上下位关系

Superordinate上义词: the word which is more genera in

meaning.

Hyponyms下义词: the word which is more specific in

meaning.

Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.

19. X is synonymous with Y.（同义）

X is inconsistent with Y.（相矛盾）

X entails Y.（包含关系）

If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y. If X is

true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.

20. Componential analysis

The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a

word can be dissected into meaning components, called

semantic features.

21. Predication analysis

An argument（名词） is a logical participant in a predication,

largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.

A predicate（主要动词） is something said about an

argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in

a sentence.

22. sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning

A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic

property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is

abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an

utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance

meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the

abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of

communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a

dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact

statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The

speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to

approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the

understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at

the door” depends on the context in which it is uttered and the

purpose for which the speaker utters it.

(How does a sentence differ from an utterance?

A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a

subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication.

It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If

we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course

of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is

beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance depends on how we

look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained

unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something

uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an

utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences,

but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored

to complete sentences.)

23. Over-extension 扩展过渡refers to the fact that Children

over-extend early words, such as "Daddy", "Mummy", as a result

they are likely to call all men daddy and all women mummy.

Overgeneralization过分概括: The use of previously available

strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular

pattern of rule of the target language in many other linguistic

situations.

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