武汉大学研究生英语课文原文 Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural Communi

Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural

Communication

1. Why is it that contact with persons from other cultures is so often

frustrating and fraught with misunderstanding? Good intentions, the use

of what one considers to be a friendly approach and even the possibility of

mutual benefits don't seem to be sufficient to ensure success-to many

people's surprise. Sometimes rejection occurs just because the group to

which a person belongs is"different." It's appropriate at this time of major

changes in the international scene to take a look at some of the reasons for

the disappointing results of attempts at communication. They are actually

stumbling blocks in intercultural communication.

2. Assumption of similarities

One answer to the question of why misunderstanding or rejection

happens might be that many of us naivety assume there are sufficient

similarities among peoples of the world to enable us to successfully

exchange information or feelings, solve problems of mutual concerns,

cement business relationships, or just make the kind of impression we wish

to make. The tendency for all people to reproduce, group into families or

societies, develop a language, and adapt to their environment is particularly

deceiving because it leads to the expectation that the forms of these

behaviors and the attitudes and values surrounding them will also be

similar. It's comforting to believe that"people are people"and "deep down

we're all alike," but a determined search for proof of this leads to

disappointment.

3. Promising are the cross-cultural studies seeking to support Darwin's

theory that facial expressions are universal and researchers found that the

particular visible pattern on the face, the combination of muscles

contracted for anger, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, and happiness is the

same for all members of our species, but this seems helpful until it is

realized that a person’s cultural upbringing determines whether or not that

emotion will be displayed or suppressed, as well as on which occasions and

to what degree. The situations that bring about the emotional feeling also

differ from culture to culture, for example, the death of a loved one may be

a cause for joy, sorrow, or some other emotion, depending upon the

accepted cultural belief.

4. Since there seems to be no universals of “human nature” that can be

used as a basis for automatic understanding, we must treat each encounter

as an individual case, searching for whatever perceptions and

communication means are held in common and proceed from there. If we

realize that we are all culture bound and culturally modified, we will accept

the fact that, being unlike, we do not really know what someone else "is."

5. The aura of similarity is a serious stumbling block to successful

intercultural communication. A look-alike facade is deceiving when

representatives from contrasting cultures meet, each wearing Western dress,

speaking English, and using similar greeting rituals. It is like assuming

that New York, Tokyo, and Tehran are all alike because each has the

appearance of a modern city. Without being alert to possible differences

and the need to learn new rules for functioning, persons going from one

city to the other will be in immediate trouble, even when acting simple

roles such as pedestrian and driver.

6. The confidence that goes with the myth of similarity is much more

comfortable than the assumption of differences, the latter requiring

tentative assumptions and behaviors and a willingness to accept the anxiety

of"not knowing." Only with the assumption of differences, however, can

reactions and interpretations be adjusted to fit"what's happening."

Otherwise someone is likely to misread signs and judge the scene

ethnocentrically.

7. The stumbling block of assumed similarity is a “troublem,” as one

English learner expressed it, not only for the foreigner but for the people

in the host country with whom the international visitor comes into contact.

The native inhabitants are likely to be lulled into the expectation that, since

the foreign person is dressed appropriately and speak some of the language,

he or she will also have similar nonverbal codes, thoughts and feelings.

Thus, nodding, smiling, and affirmative comment will probably be

confidently interpreted as meaning that they have informed, helped, and

pleased the newcomer. It is likely, however, that the foreigner actually

understood very little of the verbal and nonverbal content and was merely

indicating polite interest or trying not to embarrass himself or herself of the

host with verbalized questions.

8. Language Difference

The second stumbling block is so obvious that it hardly needs

mentioning--language. Vocabulary, syntax, idioms, slang, dialects, and so

on all cause difficulty, but the person struggling with a different language

is at least aware of being in this kind of trouble. A worse language problem

is the tenacity with which someone will cling to just one meaning of a

word or phrase in the new language, regardless of connotation or context.

The variations in possible meaning, especially if inflection and tonal

qualities are added, are so difficult to cope with that they are often waved

aside. The reason this problem is worse than simple struggling to translate

foreign words is because each person thinks he or she understands. The

nationwide misinterpretation of Khrushchev's sentence "We'll bury you" is

a classic example. Even"yes"and"no"could cause trouble. When a Japanese

hears,"Won't you have some tea?"he or she listens to the literal meaning of

the sentence and answers,"No."Meaning that he or she wants some."Yes, I

won't"would be a better reply because this tips off the host or hostess that

there may be a misunderstanding. Also, in some culture, it is polite to refuse

the first or second offer of refreshment. Many foreign guests have gone

hungry because their US host or hostess never presented the third offer—another case of “no"meaning"yes."

9. Nonverbal misinterpretations

Learning the language, which most visitors to foreign countries

consider their only barrier to understanding, is actually only the beginning.

The third stumbling block is nonverbal misinterpretations. People from

different cultures inhabit different sensory realities. They see, hear, feel,

and smell only that which has some meaning or importance for them. They

abstract whatever fits into their personal world of recognition and then

interpret it through the frame of reference of their own culture. For example,

a Saudi Arab would nonverbally signal that he liked a girl by smoothing

back his hair, which to an American girl would be just a common nervous

gesture signifying noting.

10. The lack of comprehension of nonverbal signs and symbols that are

easy to observe--such as gestures, postures, and other body movements--is

a definite communication barrier. But it is possible to learn the meanings

of these observable messages, usually in informal rather than formal ways.

It is more difficult to note correctly the unspoken codes of the other culture

that are further from awareness, such as the handling of time and spatial

relationships and subtle signs of respect of formality.

11. The Presence of Preconceptions and Stereotypes

The fourth stumbling block is the presence of preconceptions and

stereotypes. If the label "inscrutable" has preceded the Japanese guest, it

is thus we explain the Japanese constant and inappropriate smile. The

stereotype that Arabs are"inflammable” may cause the US students to keep

their distance or even alert authorities when an animated and noisy group

from the Middle East gathers. A professor who expects everyone from

Indonesia, Mexico, and many other countries to "bargain" may unfairly

interpret a hesitation or request from an international student as a move to

manipulate preferential treatment.

12. Stereotypes help do what Ernest Becker says the anxiety--prone human

race must do--reduce the threat of the unknown by making the world

predictable. Indeed, this is one of the basic functions of culture: to lay out

a predictable world in which the individual is firmly oriented. Stereotypes

are overgeneralized, secondhand beliefs that provide conceptual bases

from which to "make sense"out of what goes on around us, whether or not

they are accurate or fit the circumstances. In a foreign land their use

increases our feeling of security and is psychologically necessary to the

degree that we cannot tolerate ambiguity or the sense of helplessness

resulting from inability to understand and deal with people and situations

beyond our comprehension.

13. Stereotypes are stumbling blocks for communicators because they

interfere with objective viewing of stimuli--the sensitive search for cues to

guide the imagination toward the other persons' reality. Stereotypes are not

easy to overcome in ourselves or to correct in others, even with the

presentation of evidence. They persist because they are firmly established

as myths or truisms by one's own national culture and because they

sometimes rationalize prejudices. They are also sustained and fed by the

tendency to perceive selectively only those pieces of new information that

correspond to the image held.

14. The Practice of Immediate Evaluation

The fifth stumbling block and another deterrent to understanding

between persons of differing cultures or ethnic groups is the tendency to

evaluate, to approve or disapprove, the statements and actions of the other

person or group. Rather than to try to comprehend completely the thoughts

and feelings expressed from the world view of the other, we assume our

own culture or way of life always seems right, proper, and natural. This

bias prevents the open-minded attention needed to look at the attitudes and

behavior patterns from the other’s point of view.

15. Fresh from a conference in Tokyo where Japanese professors had

emphasized the preference the people of Japan for simple natural settings

of rocks, moss, and water and misty landscapes, I visited the Katsura

Imperial Gardens in Kyoto. At the appointed time of the tour a young

Japanese guide approached the group of 20 waiting Americans and

remarked how fortunate it was that the day was cloudy. This brought

hesitant smiles to the group who were less than pleased with the prospect

of a shower. The guide's next statement was that the timing of the

midsummer visit was particularly appropriate in that the azalea and

rhododendron blossoms were gone and the trees had not yet turned to their

brilliant, fall colors. The group laughed loudly now convinced time the

young man had a line sense of humor. I winced at his bewildered

expression, realizing that had I come before attending the conference I, also

evaluating the weather as"not very good," would have shared the group's

inference that he could not be serious.

16. Communication cutoff caused by immediate evaluation is heightened

when feelings and emotions are deeply involved; yet this is just the time

when listening with understanding is most needed. Look and listen

empathetically rather than through the thick screen of value judgments

that impede a fair understanding.

17. High Anxiety

High anxiety or tension is common in cross-cultural experiences due

to the number of uncertainties present and the personal involvement and

risk. Moderate arousal and positive attitudes prepare one to meet

challenges with energy, but high arousal, caused by a buildup of continued

moderate stress, depletes the body's energy reserve quickly and defense

must be used whether or not the person wills it. If the stay in a foreign

country is prolonged and the newcomer cannot let down his or her high

alert level, the"culture shock”phenomenon occurs. Illness may result, the

body forcing needed rest and recuperation.

18. Anxious feelings usually permeate both parties in an intercultural

dialogue. The host national is uncomfortable when talking with a foreigner

because he or she cannot maintain the normal flow of verbal and nonverbal

interaction. There are language and perception barriers; silences are too

long or too short; proxemic and other norms may be violated. He or she is

also threatened by the other's unknown knowledge, experience, and

evaluation--the visitor's potential for scrutiny and rejection of the host

national and his or her country. The foreign members of dyads are even

more threatened. They feel strange and vulnerable, helpless to cope with

messages that swamp them. Their self-esteem is often intolerably

undermined unless they employ such defenses as withdrawal into their own

reference group or into themselves, screening out or misperceiving stimuli,

or becoming aggressive or hostile. None of these defenses leads to effective

communication.

19. Knowing the six stumbling blocks is certainly a help in avoiding them,

but these particular ones cannot be easily circumvented. For most people

it takes insight, training, and sometimes an alteration of long-standing habit

or cherished beliefs before progress can be made. However, the increasing

need for global understanding and cooperation makes the effort vital. we

can study other languages and learn to expect differences in nonverbal

forms and other cultural aspects. We can train ourselves to meet

intercultural encounters with more attention to situational details, using an

investigative approach rather than preconceptions and stereotypes. We can

gradually expose ourselves to differences so that they become less

threatening. By practicing conscious relaxation techniques, we can also

learn to lower our tension level when needed to avoid triggering defensive

reactions. Roger Harrison summarizes what the intercultural

communicator must seek to achieve:

The communicator cannot stop at knowing that the people he is

working with have different customs,goals, and though pattern from his

own. He must be able to feel his way into intimate contact with these alien

values, attitudes, and feelings. He must be able to work with them and

within them, neither losing his own values in the confrontation nor

protecting himself behind a wall of intellectual detachment.