经典的The-Study-of-Administration

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The Study of Administration

Woodrow Wilson

November 1, 1886

An Essay

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I suppose that no practical science is ever studied where there is no need to know it. The very fact, therefore,

that the eminently practical science of administration is finding its way into college courses in this country

would prove that this country needs to know more about administration, were such proof of the fact required

to make out a case. It need not be said, however, that we do not look into college programmes for proof of this

fact. It is a thing almost taken for granted among us, that the present movement called civil service reform

must, after the accomplishment of its first purpose, expand into efforts to improve, not the personnel only, but

also the organization and methods of our government offices: because it is plain that their organizations and

methods need improvement only less than their personnel. It is the object of administrative study to discover,

first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with

the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy. On both these points

there is obviously much need of light among us; and only careful study can supply that light.

Before entering on that study, however, it is needful:

I. To take some account of what others have done in the same line; that is to say, of the history of the study.

II. To ascertain just what is its subject-matter.

III. To determine just what are the best methods by which to develop it, and the most clarifying political

conceptions to carry with us into it.

Unless we know and settle these things, we shall set out without chart or compass. I.

The science of administration is the latest fruit of that study of the science of politics which was begun some

twenty-two hundred years ago. It is a birth of our own century, almost of our own generation.

Why was it so late in coming? Why did it wait till this too busy century of ours to demand attention for itself?

Administration is the most obvious part of government; it is government in action; it is the executive, the

operative, the most visible side of government, and is of course as old as government itself. It is government in

action, and one might very naturally expect to find that government in action had arrested the attention and

provoked the scrutiny of writers of politics very early in the history of systematic thought.

But such was not the case. No one wrote systematically of administration as a branch of the science of

government until the present century had passed its first youth and had begun to put forth its characteristic

flower of the systematic knowledge. Up to our own day all the political writers whom we now read had

thought, argued, dogmatized only about the constitution of government; about the nature of the state, the

essence and seat of sovereignty, popular power and kingly prerogative; about the greatest meanings lying at

the heart of government, and the high ends set before the purpose of government by man’s nature and man’s

aims. The central field of controversy was that great field of theory in which monarchy rode tilt against

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democracy, in which oligarchy would have built for itself strongholds of privilege, and in which tyranny

sought opportunity to make good its claim to receive submission from all competitors. Amidst this high

warfare of principles, administration could command no pause for its own consideration. The question was

always: Who shall make law, and what shall that law be? The other question, how law should be administered

with enlightenment, with equity, with speed, and without friction, was put aside as "practical detail" which

clerks could arrange after doctors had agreed upon principles.

That political philosophy took this direction was of course no accident, no chance preference or perverse whim

of political philosophers. The philosophy of any time is, as Hegel says, "nothing but the spirit of that time

expressed in abstract thought"; and political philosophy, like philosophy of every other kind, has only held up

the mirror to contemporary affairs. The trouble in early times was almost altogether about the constitution of

government; and consequently that was what engrossed men’s thoughts. There was little or no trouble about

administration,-at least little that was heeded by administrators. The functions of government were simple,

because life itself was simple. Government went about imperatively and compelled men, without thought of

consulting their wishes. There was no complex system of public revenues and public debts to puzzle financiers;

there were, consequently, no financiers to be puzzled. No one who possessed power was long at a loss how to

use it. The great and only question was: Who shall possess it? Populations were of manageable numbers;

property was of simple sorts. There were plenty of farms, but no stocks and bonds: more cattle than vested

interests.

I have said that all this was true of "early times"; but it was substantially true also of comparatively late times.

One does not have to look back of the last century for the beginnings of the present complexities of trade and

perplexities of commercial speculation, nor for the portentous birth of national debts. Good Queen Bess,

doubtless, thought that the monopolies of the sixteenth century were hard enough to handle without burning

her hands; but they are not remembered in the presence of the giant monopolies of the nineteenth century.

When Blackstone lamented that corporations had no bodies to be kicked and no souls to be damned, he was

anticipating the proper time for such regrets by a full century. The perennial discords between master and

workmen which now so often disturb industrial society began before the Black Death and the Statute of

Laborers; but never before our own day did they assume such ominous proportions as they wear now. In brief,

if difficulties of governmental action are to be seen gathering in other centuries, they are to be seen

culminating in our own.

This is the reason why administrative tasks have nowadays to be so studiously and systematically adjusted to

carefully tested standards of policy, the reason why we are having now what we never had before, a science of

administration. The weightier debates of constitutional principle are even yet by no means concluded; but they

are no longer of more immediate practical moment than questions of administration. It is getting to be harder

to run a constitution than to frame one.

Here is Mr. Bagehot’s graphic, whimsical way of depicting the difference between the old and the new in

administration:

In early times, when a despot wishes to govern a distant province, he sends down a satrap on a grand horse,

and other people on little horses; and very little is heard of the satrap again unless he send back some of the

little people to tell what he has been doing. No great labour of superintendence is possible. Common rumour

and casual report are the sources of intelligence. If it seems certain that the province is in a bad state, satrap No.

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I is recalled, and satrap No. 2 sent out in his stead. In civilized countries the process is different. You erect a

bureau in the province you want to govern; you make it write letters and copy letters; it sends home eight

reports per diem to the head bureau in St. Petersburg. Nobody does a sum in the province without some one

doing the same sum in the capital, to "check" him, and see that he does it correctly. The consequence of this is,

to throw on the heads of departments an amount of reading and labour which can only be accomplished by the

greatest natural aptitude, the most efficient training, the most firm and regular industry.

(Essay on Sir William Pitt. [All footnotes WW’s.])

There is scarcely a single duty of government which was once simple which is not now complex; government

once had but a few masters; it now has scores of masters. Majorities formerly only underwent government;

they now conduct government. Where government once might follow the whims of a court, it must now

follow the views of a nation.

And those views are steadily widening to new conceptions of state duty; so that, at the same time that the

functions of government are everyday becoming more complex and difficult, they are also vastly multiplying

in number. Administration is everywhere putting its hands to new undertakings. The utility, cheapness, and

success of the government’s postal service, for instance, point towards the early establishment of governmental

control of the telegraph system. Or, even if our government is not to follow the lead of the governments of

Europe in buying or building both telegraph and railroad lines, no one can doubt that in some way it must

make itself master of masterful corporations. The creation of national commissioners of railroads, in addition

to the older state commissions, involves a very important and delicate extension of administrative functions.

Whatever hold of authority state or federal governments are to take upon corporations, there must follow cares

and responsibilities which will require not a little wisdom, knowledge, and experience. Such things must be

studied in order to be well done. And these, as I have said, are only a few of the doors which are being opened

to offices of government. The idea of the state and the consequent ideal of its duty are undergoing noteworthy

change; and "the idea of the state is the conscience of administration." Seeing every day new things which the

state ought to do, the next thing is to see clearly how it ought to do them.

This is why there should be a science of administration which shall seek to straighten the paths of government,

to make its business less unbusinesslike, to strengthen and purify its organization, and to crown its duties with

dutifulness. This is one reason why there is such a science. But where has this science grown up? Surely not

on this side the sea. Not much impartial scientific method is to be discerned in our administrative practices.

The poisonous atmosphere of city government, the crooked secrets of state administration, the confusion,

sinecurism, and corruption ever and again discovered in the bureaux at Washington forbid us to believe that

any clear conceptions of what constitutes good administration are as yet very widely current in the United

States. No; American writers have hitherto taken no very important part in the advancement of this science. It

has found its doctors in Europe. It is not of our making; it is a foreign science, speaking very little of the

language of English or American principle. It employs only foreign tongues; it utters none but what are to our

minds alien ideas. Its aims, its examples, its conditions, are almost exclusively grounded in the histories of

foreign races, in the precedents of foreign systems, in the lessons of foreign revolutions. It has been developed

by French and German professors, and is consequently in all parts adapted to the needs of a compact state, and

made to fit highly centralized forms of government; whereas, to answer our purposes, it must be adapted, not

to a simple and compact, but to a complex and multiform state, and made to fit highly decentralized forms of

government. If we would employ it, we must Americanize it, and that not formally, in language merely, but

radically, in thought, principle, and aim as well. It must learn our constitutions by heart; must get the

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bureaucratic fever out of its veins; must inhale much free American air.

If an explanation be sought why a science manifestly so susceptible of being made useful to all governments

alike should have received attention first in Europe, where government has long been a monopoly, rather than

in England or the United States, where government has long been a common franchise, the reason will

doubtless be found to be twofold: first, that in Europe, just because government was independent of popular

assent, there was more governing to be done; and, second, that the desire to keep government a monopoly

made the monopolists interested in discovering the least irritating means of governing. They were, besides,

few enough to adopt means promptly.

It will be instructive to look into this matter a little more closely. In speaking of European governments I do

not, of course, include England. She has not refused to change with the times. She has simply tempered the

severity of the transition from a polity of aristocratic privilege to a system of democratic power by slow

measures of constitutional reform which, without preventing revolution, has confined it to paths of peace. But

the countries of the continent for a long time desperately struggled against all change, and would have diverted

revolution by softening the asperities of absolute government. They sought so to perfect their machinery as to

destroy all wearing friction, so to sweeten their methods with consideration for the interests of the governed as

to placate all hindering hatred, and so assiduously and opportunely to offer their aid to all classes of

undertakings as to render themselves indispensable to the industrious. They did at last give the people

constitutions and the franchise; but even after that they obtained leave to continue despotic by becoming

paternal. They made themselves too efficient to be dispensed with, too smoothly operative to be noticed, too

enlightened to be inconsiderately questioned, too benevolent to be suspected, too powerful to be coped with.

All this has required study; and they have closely studied it.

On this side the sea we, the while, had known no great difficulties of government. With a new country in

which there was room and remunerative employment for everybody, with liberal principles of government and

unlimited skill in practical politics, we were long exempted from the need of being anxiously careful about

plans and methods of administration. We have naturally been slow to see the use or significance of those many

volumes of learned research and painstaking examination into the ways and means of conducting government

which the presses of Europe have been sending to our libraries. Like a lusty child, government with us has

expanded in nature and grown great in stature, but has also become awkward in movement. The vigor and

increase of its life has been altogether out of proportion to its skill in living. It has gained strength, but it has

not acquired deportment. Great, therefore, as has been our advantage over the countries of Europe in point of

ease and health of constitutional development, now that the time for more careful administrative adjustments

and larger administrative knowledge has come to us, we are at a signal disadvantage as compared with the

transatlantic nations; and this for reasons which I shall try to make clear.

Judging by the constitutional histories of the chief nations of the modern world, there may be said to be three

periods of growth through which government has passed in all the most highly developed of existing systems,

and through which it promises to pass in all the rest. The first of these periods is that of absolute rulers, and of

an administrative system adapted to absolute rule; the second is that in which constitutions are framed to do

away with absolute rulers and substitute popular control, and in which administration is neglected for these

higher concerns; and the third is that in which the sovereign people undertake to develop administration under

this new constitution which has brought them into power.

Those governments are now in the lead in administrative practice which had rulers still absolute but also

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enlightened when those modern days of political illumination came in which it was made evident to all but the

blind that governors are properly only the servants of the governed. In such governments administration has

been organized to subserve the general weal with the simplicity and effectiveness vouchsafed only to the

undertakings of a single will.

Such was the case in Prussia, for instance, where administration has been most studied and most nearly

perfected. Frederic the Great, stern and masterful as was his rule, still sincerely professed to regard himself as

only the chief servant of the state, to consider his great office a public trust; and it was he who, building upon

the foundations laid by his father, began to organize the public service of Prussia as in very earnest a service of

the public. His no less absolute successor, Frederic William III, under the inspiration of Stein, again, in his turn,

advanced the work still further, planning many of the broader structural features which give firmness and form

to Prussian administration to-day. Almost the whole of the admirable system has been developed by kingly

initiative.

Of similar origin was the practice, if not the plan, of modern French administration, with its symmetrical

divisions of territory and its orderly gradations of office. The days of the Revolution—of the Constituent

Assembly—were days of constitution-writing, but they can hardly be called days of constitution-making. The

revolution heralded a period of constitutional development,-the entrance of France upon the second of those

periods which I have enumerated,-but it did not itself inaugurate such a period. It interrupted and unsettled

absolutism, but it did not destroy it. Napoleon succeeded the monarchs of France, to exercise a power as

unrestricted as they had ever possessed.

The recasting of French administration by Napoleon is, therefore, my second example of the perfecting of civil

machinery by the single will of an absolute ruler before the dawn of a constitutional era. No corporate, popular

will could ever have effected arrangements such as those which Napoleon commanded. Arrangements so

simple at the expense of local prejudice, so logical in their indifference to popular choice, might be decreed by

a Constituent Assembly, but could be established only by the unlimited authority of a despot. The system of

the year VIII was ruthlessly thorough and heartlessly perfect. It was, besides, in large part, a return to the

despotism that had been overthrown.

Among those nations, on the other hand, which entered upon a season of constitution-making and popular

reform before administration had received the impress of liberal principle, administrative improvement has

been tardy and half-done. Once a nation has embarked in the business of manufacturing constitutions, it finds

it exceedingly difficult to close out that business and open for the public a bureau of skilled, economical

administration. There seems to be no end to the tinkering of constitutions. Your ordinary constitution will last

you hardly ten years without repairs or additions; and the time for administrative detail comes late.

Here, of course, our examples are England and our own country. In the days of the Angevin kings, before

constitutional life had taken root in the Great Charter, legal and administrative reforms began to proceed with

sense and vigor under the impulse of Henry II’s shrewd, busy, pushing, indomitable spirit and purpose; and

kingly initiative seemed destined in England, as elsewhere, to shape governmental growth at its will. But

impulsive, errant Richard and weak, despicable John were not the men to carry out such schemes as their

father’s. Administrative development gave place in their reigns to constitutional struggles; and Parliament

became king before any English monarch had had the practical genius or the enlightened conscience to devise

just and lasting forms for the civil service of the state.

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The English race, consequently, has long and successfully studied the art of curbing executive power to the

constant neglect of the art of perfecting executive methods. It has exercised itself much more in controlling

than in energizing government. It has been more concerned to render government just and moderate than to

make it facile, well-ordered, and effective. English and American political history has been a history, not of

administrative development, but of legislative oversight,-not of progress in governmental organization, but of

advance in law-making and political criticism. Consequently, we have reached a time when administrative

study and creation are imperatively necessary to the well-being of our governments saddled with the habits of

a long period of constitution-making. That period has practically closed, so far as the establishment of

essential principles is concerned, but we cannot shake off its atmosphere. We go on criticizing when we ought

to be creating. We have reached the third of the periods I have mentioned,-the period, namely, when the people

have to develop administration in accordance with the constitutions they won for themselves in a previous

period of struggle with absolute power; but we are not prepared for the tasks of the new period. Such an

explanation seems to afford the only escape from blank astonishment at the fact that, in spite of our vast

advantages in point of political liberty, and above all in point of practical political skill and sagacity, so many

nations are ahead of us in administrative organization and administrative skill. Why, for instance, have we but

just begun purifying a civil service which was rotten full fifty years ago? To say that slavery diverted us is but

to repeat what I have said—that flaws in our constitution delayed us.

Of course all reasonable preference would declare for this English and American course of politics rather than

for that of any European country. We should not like to have had Prussia’s history for the sake of having

Prussia’s administrative skill; and Prussia’s particular system of administration would quite suffocate us. It is

better to be untrained and free than to be servile and systematic. Still there is no denying that it would be better

yet to be both free in spirit and proficient in practice. It is this even more reasonable preference which impels

us to discover what there may be to hinder or delay us in naturalizing this much-to-be-desired science of

administration.

What, then, is there to prevent?

Well, principally, popular sovereignty. It is harder for democracy to organize administration than for monarchy.

The very completeness of our most cherished political successes in the past embarrasses us. We have

enthroned public opinion; and it is forbidden us to hope during its reign for any quick schooling of the

sovereign in executive expertness or in the conditions of perfect functional balance in government. The very

fact that we have realized popular rule in its fullness has made the task of organizaing that rule just so much

the more difficult. In order to make any advance at all we must instruct and persuade a multitudinous monarch

called public opinion,-a much less feasible undertaking than to influence a single monarch called a king. An

individual sovereign will adopt a simple plan and carry it out directly: he will have but one opinion, and he

will embody that one opinion in one command. But this other sovereign, the people, will have a score of

differing opinions. They can agree upon nothing simple: advance must be made through compromise, by a

compounding of differences, by a trimming of plans and a suppression of too straightforward principles. There

will be a succession of resolves running through a course of years, a dropping fire of commands running

through the whole gamut of modifications.

In government, as in virtue, the hardest of things is to make progress. Formerly the reason for this was that the

single person who was sovereign was generally either selfish, ignorant, timid, or a fool,-albeit there was now

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and again one who was wise. Nowadays the reason is that the many, the people, who are sovereign have no

single ear which one can approach, and are selfish, ignorant, timid, stubborn, or foolish with the selfishness,

the ignorances, the stubbornnesses, the timidities, or the follies of several thousand persons,-albeit there are

hundreds who are wise. Once the advantage of the reformer was that the sovereign’s mind had a definite

locality, that it was contained in one man’s head, and that consequently it could be gotten at; though it was his

disadvantage that the mind learned only reluctantly or only in small quantities, or was under the influence of

some one who let it learn only the wrong things. Now, on the contrary, the reformer is bewildered by the fact

that the sovereign’s mind has no definite locality, but is contained in a voting majority of several million heads;

and embarrassed by the fact that the mind of this sovereign also is under the influence of favorites, who are

none the less favorites in a good old-fashioned sense of the word because they are not persons by preconceived

opinions; i.e., prejudices which are not to be reasoned with because they are not the children of reason.

Wherever regard for public opinion is a first principle of government, practical reform must be slow and all

reform must be full of compromises. For wherever public opinion exists it must rule. This is now an axiom

half the world over, and will presently come to be believed even in Russia. Whoever would effect a change in

a modern constitutional government must first educate his fellow-citizens to want some change. That done, he

must persuade them to want the particular change he wants. He must first make public opinion willing to listen

and then see to it that it listen to the right things. He must stir it up to search for an opinion, and then manage

to put the right opinion in its way.

The first step is not less difficult than the second. With opinions, possession is more than nine points of the law.

It is next to impossible to dislodge them. Institutions which one generation regards as only a makeshift

approximation to the realization of a principle, the next generation honors as the nearest possible

approximation to that principle, and the next worships the principle itself. It takes scarcely three generations

for the apotheosis. The grandson accepts his grandfather’s hesitating experiment as an integral part of the fixed

constitution of nature.

Even if we had clear insight into all the political past, and could form out of perfectly instructed heads a few

steady, infallible, placidly wise maxims of government into which all sound political doctrine would be

ultimately resolvable, would the country act on them? That is the question. The bulk of mankind is rigidly

unphilosophical, and nowadays the bulk of mankind votes. A truth must become not only plain but also

commonplace before it will be seen by the people who go to their work very early in the morning; and not to

act upon it must involve great and pinching inconveniences before these same people will make up their minds

to act upon it.

And where is this unphilosophical bulk of mankind more multifarious in its composition than in the United

States? To know the public mind of this country, one must know the mind, not of Americans of the older

stocks only, but also of Irishmen, of Germans, of negroes. In order to get a footing for new doctrine, one must

influence minds cast in every mould of race, minds inheriting every bias of environment, warped by the

histories of a score of different nations, warmed or chilled, closed or expanded by almost every climate of the

globe.

So much, then, for the history of the study of administration, and the peculiarly difficult conditions under

which, entering upon it when we do, we must undertake it. What, now, is the subject-matter of this study, and

what are its characteristic objects? II.

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The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics; it at most

points stands apart even from the debatable ground of constitutional study. It is a part of political life only as

the methods of the counting house are a part of the life of society; only as machinery is part of the

manufactured product. But it is, at the same time, raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail

by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the lasting maxims of political

wisdom, the permanent truths of political progress.

The object of administrative study is to rescue executive methods from the confusion and costliness of

empirical experiment and set them upon foundations laid deep in stable principle.

It is for this reason that we must regard civil-service reform in its present stages as but a prelude to a fuller

administrative reform. We are now rectifying methods of appointment; we must go on to adjust executive

functions more fitly and to prescribe better methods of executive organization and action. Civil-service reform

is thus but a moral preparation for what is to follow. It is clearing the moral atmosphere of official life by

establishing the sanctity of public office as a public trust, and, by making service unpartisan, it is opening the

way for making it businesslike. By sweetening its motives it is rendering it capable of improving its methods

of work.

Let me expand a little what I have said of the province of administration. Most important to be observed is the

truth already so much and so fortunately insisted upon by our civil-service reformers; namely, that

administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions.

Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices.

This is distinction of high authority; eminent German writers insist upon it as of course. Bluntschli, for

instance, bids us separate administration alike from politics and from law. Politics, he says, is state activity "in

things great and universal", while "administration, on the other hand," is "the activity of the state in individual

and small things. Politics is thus the special province of the statesman, administration of the technical official."

"Policy does nothing without the aid of administration"; but administration is not therefore politics. But we do

not require German authority for this position; this discrimination between administration and politics is now,

happily, too obvious to need further discussion.

There is another distinction which must be worked into all our conclusions, which, though but another side of

that between administration and politics, is not quite so easy to keep sight of: I mean the distinction between

constitutional and administrative questions, between those governmental adjustments which are essential to

constitutional principle and those which are merely instrumental to the possibly changing purposes of a wisely

adapting convenience.

One cannot easily make clear to every one just where administration resides in the various departments of any

practicable government without entering upon particulars so numerous as to confuse and distinctions so

minute as to distract. No lines of demarcation, setting apart administrative from non-administrative functions,

can be run between this and that department of government without being run up hill and down dale, over

dizzy heights of distinction and through dense jungles of statutory enactment, hither and thither around "ifs"

and "buts," "whens" and "’howevers," until they become altogether lost to the common eye not accustomed to

this sort of surveying, and consequently not acquainted with the use of the theodolite of logical discernment. A

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great deal of administration goes about incognito to most of the world, being confounded now with political

"management," and again with constitutional principle. Perhaps this ease of confusion may explain such

utterances as that of Niebuhr’s: "Liberty," he says, "depends incomparably more upon administration than

upon constitution." At first sight this appears to be largely true. Apparently facility in the actual exercise of

liberty does depend more upon administrative arrangements than upon constitutional guarantees; although

constitutional guarantees alone secure the existence of liberty. But—upon second thought—is even so much as

this true? Liberty no more consists in easy functional movement than intelligence consists in the ease and

vigor with which the limbs of a strong man move. The principles that rule within the man, or the constitution,

are the vital springs of liberty or servitude. Because independence and subjection are without chains, are

lightened by every easy-working device of considerate, paternal government, they are not thereby transformed

into liberty. Liberty cannot live apart from constitutional principle; and no administration, however perfect and

liberal its methods, can give men more than a poor counterfeit of liberty if it rest upon illiberal principles of

government.

A clear view of the difference between the province of constitutional law and the province of administrative

function ought to leave no room for misconception; and it is possible to name some roughly definite criteria

upon which such a view can be built. Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of public law.

Every particular application of general law is an act of administration. The assessment and raising of taxes, for

instance, the hanging of a criminal, the transportation and delivery of the mails, the equipment and recruiting

of the army and navy, etc., are all obviously acts of administration; but the general laws which direct these

things to be done are as obviously outside of and above administration. The broad plans of governmental

action are not administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative. Constitutions, therefore,

properly concern themselves only with those instrumentalities of government which are to control general law.

Our federal constitution observes this principle in saying nothing of even the greatest of the purely executive

offices, and speaking only of that President of the Union who was to share the legislative and policy-making

functions of government, only of those judges of highest jurisdiction who were to interpret and guard its

principles, and not of those who were merely to give utterance to them.

This is not quite the distinction between Will and answering Deed, because the administrator should have and

does have a will of his own in the choice of means for accomplishing his work. He is not and ought not to be a

mere passive instrument. The distinction is between general plans and special means.

There is, indeed, one point at which administrative studies trench on constitutional ground—or at least upon

what seems constitutional ground. The study of administration, philosophically viewed, is closely connected

with the study of the proper distribution of constitutional authority. To be efficient it must discover the

simplest arrangements by which responsibility can be unmistakably fixed upon officials; the best way of

dividing authority without hampering it, and responsibility without obscuring it. And this question of the

distribution of authority, when taken into the sphere of the higher, the originating functions of government, it

is obviously a central constitutional question. If administrative study can discover the best principles upon

which to base such distribution, it will have done constitutional study an invaluable service. Montesquieu did

not, I am convinced, say the last word on this head.

To discover the best principle for the distribution of authority is of greater importance, possibly, under a

democratic system, where officials serve many masters, than under others where they serve but a few. All

sovereigns are suspicious of their servants, and the sovereign people is no exception to the rule; but how is its

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suspicion to be allayed by knowledge? If that suspicion could but be clarified into wise vigilance, it would be

altogether salutary; if that vigilance could be aided by the unmistakable placing of responsibility, it would be

altogether beneficent. Suspicion in itself is never healthful either in the private or in the public mind. Trust is

strength in all relations of life; and, as it is the office of the constitutional reformer to create conditions of

trustfulness, so it is the office of the administrative organizer to fit administration with conditions of clear-cut

responsibility which shall insure trustworthiness.

And let me say that large powers and unhampered discretion seem to me the indispensable conditions of

responsibility. Public attention must be easily directed, in each case of good or bad administration, to just the

man deserving of praise or blame. There is no danger in power, if only it be not irresponsible. If it be divided,

dealt out in shares to many, it is obscured; and if it be obscured, it is made irresponsible. But if it be centered

in heads of the service and in heads of branches of the service, it is easily watched and brought to book. If to

keep his office a man must achieve open and honest success, and if at the same time he feels himself entrusted

with large freedom of discretion, the greater his power the less likely is he to abuse it, the more is he nerved

and sobered and elevated by it. The less his power, the more safely obscure and unnoticed does he feel his

position to be, and the more readily does he relapse into remissness. Just here we manifestly emerge upon the

field of that still larger question,-the proper relations between public opinion and administration.

To whom is official trustworthiness to be disclosed, and by whom is it to be rewarded? Is the official to look to

the public for his meed of praise and his push of promotion, or only to his superior in office? Are the people to

be called in to settle administrative discipline as they are called in to settle constitutional principles? These

questions evidently find their root in what is undoubtedly the fundamental problem of this whole study. That

problem is: What part shall public opinion take in the conduct of administration?

The right answer seems to be, that public opinion shall play the part of authoritative critic.

But the method by which its authority shall be made to tell? Our peculiar American difficulty in organizing

administration is not the danger of losing liberty, but the danger of not being able or willing to separate its

essentials from its accidents. Our success is made doubtful by that besetting error of ours, the error of trying to

do too much by vote. Self-government does not consist in having a hand in everything, any more than

housekeeping consists necessarily in cooking dinner with one’s own hands. The cook must be trusted with a

large discretion as to the management of the fires and the ovens.

In those countries in which public opinion has yet to be instructed in its privileges, yet to be accustomed to

having its own way, this question as to the province of public opinion is much more ready soluble than in this

country, where public opinion is wide awake and quite intent upon having its own way anyhow. It is pathetic

to see a whole book written by a German professor of political science for the purpose of saying to his

countrymen, "Please try to have an opinion about national affairs"; but a public which is so modest may at

least be expected to be very docile and acquiescent in learning what things it has not a right to think and speak

about imperatively. It may be sluggish, but it will not be meddlesome. It will submit to be instructed before it

tries to instruct. Its political education will come before its political activity. In trying to instruct our own

public opinion, we are dealing with a pupil apt to think itself quite sufficiently instructed beforehand.

The problem is to make public opinion efficient without suffering it to be meddlesome. Directly exercised, in

the oversight of the daily details and in the choice of the daily means of government, public criticism is of

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course a clumsy nuisance, a rustic handling delicate machinery. But as superintending the greater forces of

formative policy alike in politics and administration, public criticism is altogether safe and beneficent,

altogether indispensable. Let administrative study find the best means for giving public criticism this control

and for shutting it out from all other interference.

But is the whole duty of administrative study done when it has taught the people what sort of administration to

desire and demand, and how to get what they demand? Ought it not to go on to drill candidates for the public

service?

There is an admirable movement towards universal political education now afoot in this country. The time will

soon come when no college of respectability can afford to do without a well-filled chair of political science.

But the education thus imparted will go but a certain length. It will multiply the number of intelligent critics of

government, but it will create no component body of administrators. It will prepare the way for the

development of a sure-footed understanding of the general principles of government, but it will not necessarily

foster skill in conducting government. It is an education which will equip legislators, perhaps, but not

executive officials. If we are to improve public opinion, which is the motive power of government, we must

prepare better officials as the apparatus of government. If we are to put in new boilers and to mend the fires

which drive our governmental machinery, we must not leave the old wheels and joints and valves and bands to

creak and buzz and clatter on as best they may at bidding of the new force. We must put in new running parts

wherever there is the least lack of strength or adjustment. It will be necessary to organize democracy by

sending up to the competitive examinations for the civil service men definitely prepared for standing liberal

tests as to technical knowledge. A technically schooled civil service will presently have become indispensable.

I know that a corps of civil servants prepared by a special schooling and drilled, after appointment, into a

perfected organization, with appropriate hierarchy and characteristic discipline, seems to a great many very

thoughtful persons to contain elements which might combine to make an offensive official class,- a distinct,

semi-corporate body with sympathies divorced from those of a progressive, free-spirited people, and with

hearts narrowed to the meanness of a bigoted officialism. Certainly such a class would be altogether hateful

and harmful in the United States. Any measure calculated to produce it would for us be measures of reaction

and of folly.

But to fear the creation of a domineering, illiberal officialism as a result of the studies I am here proposing is

to miss altogether the principle upon which I wish most to insist. That principle is, that administration in the

United States must be at all points sensitive to public opinion. A body of thoroughly trained officials serving

during good behavior we must have in any case: that is a plain business necessity. But the apprehension that

such a body will be anything un-American clears away the moment it is asked. What is to constitute good

behavior? For that question obviously carries its own answer on its face. Steady, hearty allegiance to the policy

of the government they serve will constitute good behavior. That policy will have no taint of officialism about

it. It will not be the creation of permanent officials, but of statesmen whose responsibility to public opinion

will be direct and inevitable. Bureaucracy can exist only where the whole service of the state is removed from

the common political life of the people, its chiefs as well as its rank and file. Its motives, its objects, its policy,

its standards, must be bureaucratic. It would be difficult to point out any examples of impudent exclusiveness

and arbitrariness on the part of officials doing service under a chief of department who really served the people,

as all our chiefs of departments must be made to do. It would be easy, on the other hand, to adduce other

instances like that of the influence of Stein in Prussia, where the leadership of one statesman imbued with true

public spirit transformed arrogant and perfunctory bureaux into public-spirited instruments of just government.

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The ideal for us is a civil service cultured and self-sufficient enough to act with sense and vigor, and yet so

intimately connected with the popular thought, by means of elections and constant public counsel, as to find

arbitrariness of class spirit quite out of the question. III.

Having thus viewed in some sort the subject-matter and the objects of this study of administration, what are

we to conclude as to the methods best suited to it—the points of view most advantageous for it?

Government is so near us, so much a thing of our daily familiar handling, that we can with difficulty see the

need of any philosophical study of it, or the exact points of such study, should be undertaken. We have been on

our feet too long to study now the art of walking. We are a practical people, made so apt, so adept in

self-government by centuries of experimental drill that we are scarcely any longer capable of perceiving the

awkwardness of the particular system we may be using, just because it is so easy for us to use any system. We

do not study the art of governing: we govern. But mere unschooled genius for affairs will not save us from sad

blunders in administration. Though democrats by long inheritance and repeated choice, we are still rather

crude democrats. Old as democracy is, its organization on a basis of modern ideas and conditions is still an

unaccomplished work. The democratic state has yet to be equipped for carrying those enormous burdens of

administration which the needs of this industrial and trading age are so fast accumulating. Without

comparative studies in government we cannot rid ourselves of the misconception that administration stands

upon an essentially different basis in a democratic state from that on which it stands in a non-democratic state.

After such study we could grant democracy the sufficient honor of ultimately determining by debate all

essential questions affecting the public weal, of basing all structures of policy upon the major will; but we

would have found but one rule of good administration for all governments alike. So far as administrative

functions are concerned, all governments have a strong structural likeness; more than that, if they are to be

uniformly useful and efficient, they must have a strong structural likeness. A free man has the same bodily

organs, the same executive parts, as the slave, however different may be his motives, his services, his energies.

Monarchies and democracies, radically different as they are in other respects, have in reality much the same

business to look to.

It is abundantly safe nowadays to insist upon this actual likeness of all governments, because these are days

when abuses of power are easily exposed and arrested, in countries like our own, by a bold, alert, inquisitive,

detective public thought and a sturdy popular self-dependence such as never existed before. We are slow to

appreciate this; but it is easy to appreciate it. Try to imagine personal government in the United States. It is

like trying to imagine a national worship of Zeus. Our imaginations are too modern for the feat.

But, besides being safe, it is necessary to see that for all governments alike the legitimate ends of

administration are the same, in order not to be frightened at the idea of looking into foreign systems of

administration for instruction and suggestion; in order to get rid of the apprehension that we might perchance

blindly borrow something incompatible with our principles. That man is blindly astray who denounces

attempts to transplant foreign systems into this country. It is impossible: they simply would not grow here. But

why should we not use such parts of foreign contrivances as we want, if they be in any way serviceable? We

are in no danger of using them in a foreign way. We borrowed rice, but we do not eat it with chopsticks. We

borrowed our whole political language from England, but we leave the words "king" and "lords" out of it.

What did we ever originate, except the action of the federal government upon individuals and some of the

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functions of the federal supreme court?

We can borrow the science of administration with safety and profit if only we read all fundamental differences

of condition into its essential tenets. We have only to filter it through our constitutions, only to put it over a

slow fire of criticism and distil away its foreign gases. I know that there is a sneaking fear in some

conscientiously patriotic minds that studies of European systems might signalize some foreign methods as

better than some American methods; and the fear is easily to be understood. But it would scarcely be avowed

in just any company.

It is the more necessary to insist upon thus putting away all prejudices against looking anywhere in the world

but at home for suggestions in this study, because nowhere else in the whole field of politics, it would seem,

can we make use of the historical, comparative method more safely than in this province of administration.

Perhaps the more novel the forms we study the better. We shall the sooner learn the peculiarities of our own

methods. We can never learn either our own weaknesses or our own virtues by comparing ourselves with

ourselves. We are too used to the appearance and procedure of our own system to see its true significance.

Perhaps even the English system is too much like our own to be used to the most profit in illustration. It is best

on the whole to get entirely away from our own atmosphere and to be most careful in examining such systems

as those of France and Germany. Seeing our own institutions through such media, we see ourselves as

foreigners might see us were they to look at us without preconceptions. Of ourselves, so long as we know only

ourselves, we know nothing.

Let it be noted that it is the distinction, already drawn, between administration and politics which makes the

comparative method so safe in the field of administration. When we study the administrative systems of

France and Germany, knowing that we are not in search of political principles, we need not care a peppercorn

for the constitutional or political reasons which Frenchmen or Germans give for their practices when

explaining them to us. If I see a murderous fellow sharpening a knife cleverly, I can borrow his way of

sharpening the knife without borrowing his probable intention to commit murder with it; and so, if I see a

monarchist dyed in the wool managing a public bureau well, I can learn his business methods without

changing one of my republican spots. He may serve his king; I will continue to serve the people; but I should

like to serve my sovereign as well as he serves his. By keeping this distinction in view,-that is, by studying

administration as a means of putting our own politics into convenient practice, as a means of making what is

democratically politic towards all administratively possible towards each,-we are on perfectly safe ground, and

can learn without error what foreign systems have to teach us. We thus devise an adjusting weight for our

comparative method of study. We can thus scrutinize the anatomy of foreign governments without fear of

getting any of their diseases into our veins; dissect alien systems without apprehension of blood-poisoning.

Our own politics must be the touchstone for all theories. The principles on which to base a science of

administration for America must be principles which have democratic policy very much at heart. And, to suit

American habit, all general theories must, as theories, keep modestly in the background, not in open argument

only, but even in our own minds,-lest opinions satisfactory only to the standards of the library should be

dogmatically used, as if they must be quite as satisfactory to the standards of practical politics as well.

Doctrinaire devices must be postponed to tested practices. Arrangements not only sanctioned by conclusive

experience elsewhere but also congenial to American habit must be preferred without hesitation to theoretical

perfection. In a word, steady, practical statesmanship must come first, closet doctrine second. The

cosmopolitan what-to-do must always be commanded by the American how-to-do-it.

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Our duty is, to supply the best possible life to a federal organization, to systems within systems; to make town,

city, county, state, and federal governments live with a like strength and an equally assured healthfulness,

keeping each unquestionably its own master and yet making all interdependent and co-operative combining

independence with mutual helpfulness. The task is great and important enough to attract the best minds.

This interlacing of local self-government with federal self-government is quite a modern conception. It is not

like the arrangements of imperial federation in Germany. There local government is not yet, fully, local

self-government. The bureaucrat is everywhere busy. His efficiency springs out of esprit de corps, out of care

to make ingratiating obeisance to the authority of a superior, or at best, out of the soil of a sensitive conscience.

He serves, not the public, but an irresponsible minister. The question for us is, how shall our series of

governments within governments be so administered that it shall always be to the interest of the public officer

to serve, not his superior alone but the community also, with the best efforts of his talents and the soberest

service of his conscience? How shall such service be made to his commonest interest by contributing

abundantly to his sustenance, to his dearest interest by furthering his ambition, and to his highest interest by

advancing his honor and establishing his character? And how shall this be done alike for the local part and for

the national whole?

If we solve this problem we shall again pilot the world. There is a tendency—is there not?— a tendency as yet

dim, but already steadily impulsive and clearly destined to prevail, towards, first the confederation of parts of

empires like the British, and finally of great states themselves. Instead of centralization of power, there is to be

wide union with tolerated divisions of prerogative. This is a tendency towards the American type—of

governments joined with governments for the pursuit of common purposes, in honorary equality and

honorable subordination. Like principles of civil liberty are everywhere fostering like methods of government;

and if comparative studies of the ways and means of government should enable us to offer suggestions which

will practicably combine openness and vigor in the administration of such governments with ready docility to

all serious, well-sustained public criticism, they will have approved themselves worthy to be ranked among the

highest and most fruitful of the great departments of political study. That they will issue in such suggestions I

confidently hope.

WOODROW WILSO

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